科学技術政策研究所
調　査　研　究　資　料
調査資料－18
日本の超伝導産業における
研究開発コンソーシアムと共同関係
Research and Development Consortia and Cooperative Relationships
inJapan’s SuperconductivityIndustry
ジェラルド・バネ
米国ハーバード大学科学技術政策部
Gerald Hane
Science，Technology and Public Policy
Harvard University，U．S．A．
1991年12月
December，1991
科　学　技　術　庁
科学技術政策研究所
第1研究グループ
First Theory－Oriented Research Group
NationalInstitute of Science and Technology Policy
Science and Technology Agency
］1
◇　本資料はG erald H ane 氏が1989 年7 月より199 1年9 月までの間、当研究所客員及び特
別研究員として研究した成果の概要を取りまとめたものである。
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I．　　NTRODUCTION
II．　　WHATISTIIETECHNOLOGY？
ThePotentialImpactofHTS－MarketStudies
III．　THEDEVモLOPMENTOFASUPERCONDUCTIVITYINDUSTRY
INJAPAN
TheDevelopmentofaSuperconductivityScienceandTechnologyBase
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Summary
IV．　WHATWASTHEINDUSTRYSTATUSATTf江TIMEOFHTS
V．
TheLTSMarkets
NatureoftheIndustry
FわⅥ1月eJのわれ∫
Rg∫gd・C／zAcパV砂
∫〟〝間αワ
THERESPONSETOTHEDISCOVERYOFHIGHTEMPERATURE
SUPERCONDUCTrvITY
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TheGoverrmentResponse
TheIndustrialResponse
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AnalyzingtheGovemmentResponse
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T／Jピ九五m、てりバ「n′こく－′：ドド
TheFundingProcess
Coordination
Conclusions
VI．　TIIEORGANIZATIONOFHTSRESEARCHCONSORTIAAND
TIIEIRCONTRIBUTIONTOmOVATION
TheOrganizationofISTECandMulti－Core
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TheImpactonInnovation
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mgC／7°／e君gど〆CO／ZJの肌日毎弾融
VfI．　SYSTEMSANI）DEVICEAPPROACIIES
BriefIntroductionofthePrograms
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VIII．EVIDENCEOFGENERALCOOPERATIONINTIiEINDUSTRY
Diversincation
IndustrialStnlCture
CooperationwithUniversities
NationalPrqjectSpin－Off
Summary
IX．　CONCLUSIONS
APPENI）ICIES
APPENDIXA
APPENDIXB
APPENDIXC
APPENDIXD
207
207
210
216
216
218
219
220
221
222
7　　　00　3　7　11　1　　　5
2　　23344　　4
2　　　2　2　2　2　2　　　2
SuperconductingMagnetsUsedattheNational
LaboratoryfbrHigh－EnergyPhysics
EquipmentandFacilitiesAdvertisedfbrCooperative
ResearchUseattheMulti－CoreProgramResearch
Cores
ProgramandPerfbrmanceInfbrmationRegardiIlgthe
SuperconductingElectricityGenerator
PatentApplicationCollaboratorswithMajorSystemsandCableand
WireFirmsinSuperconductivity
I．　　INTRODUCTION
WhenKoichiKitazawaandPaulChuindependentlyannouncedconfimlationofthe
hightemperaturesuperconductivityphenomenaattheMaterialsResearchSociety
ConfbrenceonDecember4，1986，theyigmitedtheintemationaldevelopmentofanew
neld・ItwaSanunanticipatedandamqjorbreakthroughwhichoffbredanarrayof
POSSibilitiesandquestionstobeanswered．Howhighwouldthetemperaturego？Could
thesematerialsbeprocessedintousefuldevices？Whatwasthecauseorthephenomena？
Forscience，thediscoveryposedachallengetowellestablishedtheoriesofthe
mechanismsofsuperconductivity．Acceptedtheoriesdidnotpredictthisphenomenaand
didnotprovideaguideofhowtoproceed．Fortheindustry，andfbrconsumers，the
discoveryoffbrednewhopefbrthepossibilitythatsuperconductorsmightyetcomeinto
widespreadcommonuse，affbctingawideraflgeOfactivitiesmnging丘omvehicle
transportation，tOenergyCOnVerSionandstorage，tOinfbrmationprocessing，tOmedicaland
materialdiagnostics．
Thesuddenemergenceofhightemperaturesuperconductivityprovidesan
OPPOrtunitytoexaminetheresponseofpublicandprivateinstitutionstoam亘iorunexpected
breakthroughwhichatleastfbrabrieftimecapturedtheattentionofscientists，
industrialists，andpolicymakers．Itprovidesachancetoseehowpoliciestakeshapeas
Variousamsofthebureaucracyviefbraroleinitsdevelopment，andasvariousnrmsand
laboratoriesmovetopositionthemselvesintheindustry．Anditprovidesachancetoview
theuseofcooperativeR＆DaSinstitutionsmovetostrengthenthemselvesquicklyinthis
area．
Hightemperaturesuperconductivitydidnot，however，OCCurinatechnological
VaCuumaStheredidexistanestablishedsuperconductivityindustryinJapanwhichhad
developedovertheprevious20years．Itwasanindustrywhichwasrearedoverahistory
Orlargeengineeringprqjects，andisahistorywhichisitselfrevealingof－theusesof
COnSOrtiafbrtechnologydevelopment．
InthischapterIwi11beexaminingtheroleofgovemmentpolicyinsupportof
innovationandtheroIeof－R＆Dalliancesthroughresearchanddevelopmentprqjectsin
bothhightemperatureandtraditionallowtemperaturesuperconductivity．Throughoutthis
SeCtionthehistory，analysisoftheindustry，andcasestudiesareaallconductedwithan
intenttoexaminehowtheseprQjectsarecreated，howtheyareorganizedandexecuted，and
WhatimpacttheactivitieshaveonthetechnologyoriIldustry．
ー1－
Dividingtheseprqjectsbetweenthehightemperatureandlowtemperaturecases
allowsacontra5tOftheuseofconsortiatosupportprqjectswhichareprimari1ya
technologiCalorengineeringchal1enge，thoseinvolvinglowtemperaturesuperconductivity
（LTS），andprQjectswhichareascientincchallenge，thoseinvoIvinghightemperature
superconductivity（frrS）．Examiningthelowtemperaturecasesalsoallowsfbran
opportunitytoviewtheinnuenceofdifTbringtechnologiCalcharacteristicssuchasscaleand
COmPlexityontheoperationofconsortia・
Thisreportisdividedintoninesections・Followingthisintroduction，thesecond
sectionprovidesabriefintroductiontothetechnology，itsapplicationsandpotential
applications，andtheproblemsfhcedirlitsdevelopment・Thethirdsectionpresentsa
discussionofthehistoryofthesuperconductivityindustryinJapanupto1986・This
sectionwi11illustratetheearlyroleofgovernmentprogramsandconsortiainpursuing
superconductivity，relationshipsestablished，andthedevelopmentofthem句Orlaboratories
andtechnologies．Thefburthsectioncontainsareviewofthestatusoftheindustryandof
industrialrelationshipsatthetimeofthediscoveryofHTS・Thisisfbllowedinthen食h
sectionbyanexaminationofthetimingandmagnitudeoftheresponseof－theindustryand
OfthegovemmenttotheHTSdiscovery，aSkirlghowwellthelatterseemstosupportthe
former．Anerthisreviewthediscussionwi11movetoananalysisofspecinccaSeSin
collaborativeR＆DinSectionsSixandSeven．ThetwocaSeSinHTScollaboration
fbcussedonherearetheIntemationalSuperconductivityTechnologyCenter（ISTEC）and
theMulti－CoreProgram．TheseventhsectionisananalysisofcasesfromLTSR＆D・
Thesecasesprovidetheopportunityfbrexamininginmoredetai1theissuesoffbrmation，
Organization，andimpactinalessfbveredenvironment・IntheeighthsectionItouchonthe
issueofcollaborationinR＆Dgenerallyinsuperconductivitytoexaminemorebroadlyhow
COllaborationhasbeenusedtopromoteinnovation，andconcludewithageneralsummary
inSectionNine．
II．　　WHATIS TITE TECHNOLOGY
Tounderstandthetechnicalsideofwhyscienceandtechnologypoliciesare
irnplemented，WhateffbcttheyhaveontechnologiCalprogress，andinparticularto
understandwhatincentivesthetechnologiesposefbrcollaboration，anunderstandingofthe
Substanceofthescienceandtechnologyisessential．InthissectionIwillprovideabrief
descriptionofsuperconductivityandsuperconductingtechnologiestogiveteclmical
perspectivefbrtheanalyseswhichfbllow．Iwillalsointroducetherangeofusesofthis
teclm010gyandtheirpromiseshoulduseofhightempeIaturematerialsbecomerealized．
ー2－
Superconductivityisthecompleteabsenceofresistancetothe且owof－anelectrical
Current．WhenelectricitypassesthroughconventionalmaterialS，theflowofthecurrent
meetswithresistanceandsomeoftheenergyinthecurrentisdissipatedasheat．Thebetter
theconductivepropertiesofthematerial，thelesstheresistzulCe．However，allconventional
materialsposesomeresistance．InsuperCOnductingmaterialS，theresistanceiszeroand
electricityisabletomovewithperfbctefnciency．Torealizethesebenents，however，the
materialshavetobedroppedtoveryloWtemperatures．Thiscompletelossofresistanceis
extremelyappealingasitmeansthatnoenergyislostinthematerial，thattheheatgenerated
byconventionalconductorscanbecompletelyeliminated，andthatverystrongmagnetic
neldscanbegeneratedbymuchsmallermagnets．
ThisphenomenawaSfirstrecordedbyHeikeKamerlillghOnnesin1911whilehe
WaSCOnductingexpedmentsonthebehaviorormetalsatverylowtemperatures．Atthe
time，hewasnot”searching”fbrsuperconductivity，aSthephenomenahadnotbeen
hypothesized，butwascompetingwithfdlowscientiststoachieveexperimentsatlowerand
lowertemperaturesthroughtheliquifhctionofrareearthgases．Thusitwasnotthe
breakthroughofdiscoveringsuperconductivitywhichKamerlinghOnneswaspursuing，
butthebreakthroughofbeingthefirsttoliquifyhelium，Whichheaccomplishedirl1908at
theUniversityofI．eiden．Theliquifhctionofhydrogenallowedhimtoconductmaterials
experimentsattemperatureSlowerthanhadeverbeenconductedbefbre，anditwasinthe
midstoftheseexperimentsthathediscoveredstrangechangesinthepropertiesofmercury，
Whichhelaterverinedandtermed”superCOnductivity．”
Ponderingtheimplicationsofthispossibilityinhiseadywritings，Kamerling
Onnescommentedthat”theminiaturecoil…mayPrOVetObetheprototypeofmagnetic
COils．．．bywhichinthefuturemuchstrongerand．．．moreextensiveneldsmayberealized
thanareatpresentreachedintheinterfbrrumofthestrongestelectromagnets・MI
HighneldmagnetshaveinfhctturnedouttobetheprincipaluseOf
SuperCOnductors．Applicationsbeingdevelopedincludethoseinenergy（experimental
fusionmagnets，electricitygeneration，andenergystoragesystems），highenergyphysics
experiments（accele王atOrS），tranSPOrtation（magnetictrainlevitation，electromagneticship
PrOPulsion），andmedicine（MRIandNMR）．Inadditiontotheseapplications，thezero
resistancepropertyofthesuperconductorshasattractedattentionfbrcomputerapplications
andsignalprocessing，andaphenomenauniquetosuperconductorsknownasthe
JosephsoneftbcthasmadeitattractivefbrverysensitivesensormeasuremerltS．
1DavidLarbalestier，et．al．，．’High－FieldSuperconductivity，”聖地麺迫March1986，PP．24－
33．
－3胃
Whydoessuperconductivityrequiresuchlowtemperatures？Statedsimply，itis
becauseonlyatthesetemperaturesaretheatomsinacrystallinelatticequietenoughnotto
distufbthenowofthesuperconductingelectrons．Astemperatureincreases，theatoms
beginbouncingaroundmore，andtherebyinterftrewiththepathofelectronnow．
Until1986，SuperCOnductivitywasonlydbservedwhenmaterialswerecooled
downtoextremelylowtemperatures．Theelementalsuperconductorswouldonlyexhibit
thispropertyattemperaturesbelowlOK，andthevariouscompounds synthesizedoverthe
Subsequentdecadeswouldnotclimbmuchhigher．Niobiumnitridewasfbundto
SuPerCOnductupto16Kin1941andinthefbrtynveyearsthatfbllowed，thecritical
temperaturehadonlyrisento23Kwiththesynthesisofniobium－germaniumbyJolm
Gavalerin1971．
ThechallengeinincreasingtheuseofsuperconductingmaterialS，however，isnot
justraisingthetemperaturebutfbrmlngthematerialsintowires，nlmS，Orballs，thatmust
becapableofcarryingusefu1currentsandoperating，Often，inmagneticfieIds．Formagnet
applications，CurrentStyPicallydernandedareontheorderoflO，000to20，000A元m2
underneldsrangirlgbetweenlto8telsa（ltelsa（T）isequaltolO，000Gauss，Withthe
typicalstrengthofarefhgeratormagnetbeinglesSthanonegauss．）
Ifasuperconductorisfbdtoohighacurrentorexposedtotoohighamagneticfield
itwillceasetobesuperconducting．Tounderstandwhy，itishelpfhltounderstandthata
SuPerCOnductorrespondstothepresenceofamagneticneld．Acharacteristicuniqueto
SuperCOnductorsistheirhbilitytocompletelyexcludemagneticneldsthatexistinthe
COnductor．Thisefftct，discoveredbyWaltherMeissnerin1933，andhencenamedthe
MeissnerEffbct，meanSthatthemagneticneldgeneratedbythesuperconductorresides
entirelyoutSideoftheconductor．ThiswasasignincantstepinunderstarldingthebehavioT
OfthematerialS，aSitpointedoutthatsuperconductivitylnVOIvednotjustachangein
electriCalbehavior，butachangeofthermodynamicstates．However，eXCludingthe
magneticneldrequlreSenergy，anditiswhenthisrequiredenergybecomestoogreatthat
theabilitytosuperconductdisappears．
Traditionalsuperconductorsfhllintooneoftwoclassesbasedontheirbehavior．
TheareeitherTypeIorTypeIIsuperconductors．Tbeearlyelementalsuperconductors
WereTypeIsuperCOnductors．Inthesematerials，thereexistsperfbctdiamagnetismuntila
Criticalmagneticneldisreached．Beyondthisvalue，thematerialreturnstoitsnormalstate．
TypeIIsuperconductorscomprisemanyofthecompoundssynthesizedoverthepastfbur
decades，SuChastheniobiumcompounds，Whichtendtoreachhighertemperaturesthanthe
elementalmaterialS．Inthesernaterialsmagneticneldscanpenetratethematerialinan
Orderlyarraythroughthefbrmationofvorticies．
－4－
ThusinaTypeImaterial，thecurrentonlynowsatthesurfhceofthewire．Any
currentthatwouldnowinthewirewouldcreateamagneticneldandwouldthusbe
expelled．Thisexpulsion，however，requiresabitofenergyinthefbrmofmagnetic
SCreeningcurrents．Thegreatertheneld，thegreaterthescreeningenergy．Thuswhentoo
greataneldisapplied，theenergylevelinthesuperCOnductorexceedsthatinitsnormal
State，SOthematerialconvertstothelowerenergylevelandlosesitssuperconductivity．
InaTypeⅡsuperconductorthepresenceofamagneticfieldcancausethe
SuPerCOnductortoenterwhatisknownasamixedstate・Predictedanddemonstratedby
SovietphysicistAlexeiAbrikosovinl957，thepresenceof－themixedstateallowsthe
materialstomaintainitssuperconductivityinhighermagneticneldsbyreducirlgtheamount
OfenergyneededtoenablethesuperCOnductortoexpelthemagneticfield．
ThemagneticneldpenetratesthesuperconductorthroughcylindriCalcoreswhich
areknownasvortices，witheachsuchvortexcarryingonequantumnux．Eachvortex
CreateSalittlemagneticneldandinteractswiththeneld5generatedbyothervortices．The
greaterthemagneticfieldthatneedstobecounteracted，thelargerthenumberofvorticies．
Whenthematerialcannolongeraccommodatenewvorticies，itretumstoitsnormalstate
andsuperconductivitydisappears．
Themechanismdenningcriticalcurrentisalsoslightlydiffbrentintheca5eOfa
TypeIIsuperconductor．Themovementof－thecurrentinthewire，Wherethereisalsoa
magneticneld，CreateSaLorentzfbrcewhichcausesthevorticiestomoveatrightanglesto
thenowofthecurrent．Thismotioncausesalossofenergyinthefbrmofheat，Whichis
effbctivelyaresistancetothecurrent，andwhichcausesthematerialtoloseits
SuPerCOnductivity．Togetaroundthisphenomena，knowas”nuxcreep，”researchershave
developedteclmiquestomakeitimmobile，tO”pin”thenux，andthusallowsubstantial
currentstopasswithoutalossofsuperconductivity．Commontechniquesaretoadd
impuritiesorstressthematerial，Creatinggrainboundarieswhichacttopinthevorticies・
Aninterestingimplicationofthisisthatasuperconductingmaterialthatisperftct，without
impuritiesorgrainboundarieswouldT10tbeabletopassacurreIltwithoutlosingits
SuPerCOnductivity．nisphenomenaoffluxcreep，ittumsout，alsobecomesakeyissuein
thedevelopmentofpracticalhightemperaturesuperconductors・
Theprincipallimitationtowideruseof－superconductorshaLS，however，been
temperature．Whereascriticalcurrentandcriticalmagneticneldstrengthscanbeimproved
throughprocessingtechniques，temPeratureisapropertyofthematerial．Withthehighest
temperaturematerialonlyreaching23K，thebulkyandcostlyrefhgeIationrequirements
PrOVeam可Orhandicaptodiffusion．
－5－
Reducingoreliminatingthishandicaphasbeenthequestofsuperconductivity
researcherssinceitsdiscovery．Thesuddenpossibilitythatthismightbeachievedthrough
anentirelydi拝もrentclassormaterialswaswhytherewassomuchexcitementsurrounding
theBednoIZandMuellerdiscovery．
Thediscoveryofsuperconductivityinapervoskitematerialwasexcitingfbra
numberofreasons．Itrevivedthehopeofnndingamaterialthatmightsuperconductat
roomtemperatures・Secondly，itrevealedaphenomenathatwasnewtoanentireclassof
materials，andwasachievedintheのsenceofanacceptedtheoryofwhythismightbe
occurring・Itthusopenedthepossibilitythatanentirelynewphenomenahadbeen
discovered．Andthirdly，itinvoIvedaclassofmaterialinwhichmosttIaditional
superCOnductingmanufhcturerswerenotinvoIved，Whichrequiredlittlecapitalinvestment
toenter，andwhichthusprovidedanattractiveopportunityfbrnrmswantingtodiversify・
Amaterialthatcansuperconductatroomtemperatureshasbeenahopeof
industrialistssincethephenomerlOn’sdiscovery．Itwouldmeantheeliminationofbulky
andcostlyrefhgerationrequirementsandthewidespreaduseofthesuperconductivityto
dramaticallyreduceelectricityconversionandtransmissionlosses，tOPrOVidepowerfu1，
COmpaCtmagnetSandenergystoragesystemsfbrstationaryandmobileuses，tOenablethe
widespreaduseofultra－SenSitivesensingtechnologies，tOenhancesignalandinfbrmation
PrOCeSSing，aSWellastonndapplicationinusesyettobeconceived．
Intherealmoftheory，perVOSkitesuperconductivityappearedtobeanexceptionto
thewellestablishedtheoryofthesuperconductivitymechanismproposedbyJohnBardeen，
LeonCooperandRobertSchrieffbrinl957．Theessenceof－thistheoryisthatthe
SuPerCOnductivitycomesaboutwhenelectronsfbrmpairstopassthroughamaterial．
Normally，electronswouldrepeleachotherastheycarryacommonnegativecharge．Inthe
CaSeOfmetallicsuperconductors，however，theelectronsarefbundtofbrmpairs．These
PairsarefbrmedastheresultofaninteIaCtionbetween丘eeelectronsandvibrationsinthe
latticeofthemateria1，aPhenomenonknownaselectron－Phononinteraction．Herethe
interactionoftheelectronandthelatticeresultsinaslightdistortioninthelatticewhichtugs
OnneighboringlOnS．Thetugontheionscausesaslightpolarization，andtheresultant
COnCentrationofpositivechargesattIaCtSaneWelectron．Whenthesetwoelectronsbind
together，theyhavealowerenergylevelthaniftheyremainindependent，andthusrepresent
athermodynamicallymorestableconditiOn．Thelowestenergylevelisachievedwhenall
Ofthepairsbehaveinthesameway，Whentheyhavethesamewavefunction．Anditis
Whentheareallinlockstepthatsuperconductivityarises．Whetherthisisthemechanism
OCCumnginthenewhightemperaturesuperconductorsisunclear．
－6－
Thirdly，thenewsuperconductorswereceramicsandthetraditionalnmsinthe
industryhadlittleexperiencewiththismaterial・Additionally，thecostsofsynthesizingand
experimentingwiththematerialwerelow，SOnrmSOutSideofthetraditionalindustryhad
lowbarrierstoentry・Thenewmaterialprovidedanattractiveopportunityfbr
diversincation．
ThePotentialImpactofHTS－MarketStudies
Theexcitementovertheunexpecteddiscoveryofhighertemperature
SuperCOnductingmaterialsalsoledtoarushinspeculationaboutthesizeoftheimpactof
thisnewtechnology．Wasitpossibletomeasurethepotentialsizeoftheimpact？
Onedimensionwhichcanbeestimatedwithanumber，andinwhichnrmsaremost
interested，isthemarketpotentialof．applicationsofhighertemperaturematerialS．Am互ior
question，Ofcourse，WaShowhighoneexpectedthecriticaltemperatureofthematerialto
rise・IfiswasassumedtemperatureSWOuldplateauirltherangeofliquidnitrogen，then
mostprQjectionswerefbrsomeincrementalexpansionofthemarket．If，however，the
materialswereusableatrealroomtemperatures，thentherangeofnewandexpanded
applicationscouldbedramatic．
TheearliestestimatesofmarketpotentialwerereleasedbytheNomuraResearch
IIIStituteandbySumitomoElectricCorporatioIl．Innuencebytheearlyexcitement
SurrOundingthediscoveries，andhearingrumorthatroomtemperaturesuperconducting
materialshadbeendiscovered，Nomuraprqjectedthatatrulyroomtemperature
SuPerCOnductingmaterialwouldbeapplicableinafbwyears．Thustheyestimatedthatthe
marketfbrsuperconductingmaterialswouldgrowto6tri11ionyenbytheyear2000and17
tri11ionyenbytheyear2010．2ThisprqjectionisshowninFigurel．
Thisprqjectiondrewagreatdealorexcitementatthetimeasitamplinedthesense
thathightemperaturesuperconductivitywasboundfbram毎Orimpactonsociety．The
estimatewasnot，however，basedonaspecincbreakdownofthemarkets．
SumitomoElectricsoonfbllowedwithaprqjectionwhichmoreexplicitlyidentined
thetechnologieslikelytobemostefftctedarlddividedmarketsintothoseafftctedby
materialswhichwouldbecooledbyliquidnitrogen（77K）andmaterialswhichcould
OperateatrOOmtemPerature．TheirestimatesweremoremodestthantheNomura
PrQjections，WithamarketofO．5tri11ionyenfbrmaterialsat77K，and5tri11ionyenfbr
roomtemperaturematerials．
2〝ChodendoGijutsunoGenjotoDoko，〃旦蜘担，No．125，July13，1987，P．17．
－7－
NucleaT fusioll，etc．
Figurel．　PrqjectedGrowthoftheSuperCOnductivityMarketAftertheDiscoveryof HTS（Materialbasedon埋地，No．125，July13，1987，P．17）
Aftertheexcitementhadsettleddown，mOrethoroughandtechnicallythoughtful
analyseswereconductedbyanumberofotherfimsincludingtheNikkeiResearch
Institute，theIntemationalSuperconductivityTechnologyCenter（ISTEC），andMitsubishi
ResearchInstitute．
Inthesestudieseachofthetechnologiestowhichhightemperaturematerialswere
likelytobeappliedwereidentinedandperfbrmanceimprovementsestimated．Uses
identinedbytheNikkeiResearchInstituteareshowninTablel．
AsummaryoftheestimatesffomthenrsttwostudiesarepresentedinTable2．The
MitsubishiResearchInstitutestudyisproprietarysothengurescannotbepublishedhere，
butingeneralorderofmagnitudetheyareinagreementwiththesepublicstudies．
ThelargestjumpintheNikkeistudyisprqjectedtooccurinthetransportation
SeCtOr，a9．5fbldincrease．Thisisprimarilyduetoaveryoptimistictigureassignedtothe
－8－
developmentofallelectricvehicleschargedwithsuperconductingenergystoragerings・
Thisusealone，theyprqject，wi11jumpl，910billionyenwiththeapplicationofmaterials
OPeratingat77Kto29，910billionyenwithroomtemperaturesuperconductors，a15．7
fbldincrease・AIsoweighingheavilyinthisprqjectedincreasearetheelectromagnetic
thrustship，increasingh‘Om2，365billionyento4，865billionyen，andthemagnetictrain
levitation，increasingfiom80billionyen，tO2，645billionyen．
Theelectronicssectorexhibitsthenextlargestpotentialexpansion，increasing5．7
timesfiom442billionyento2，537billionyen．Thelargestcontributioninthissector
COmeSfiomtheexpandeduseofzero－reSistancesubstratecomponents，Prqiectedto
increasefrom196billionyenat77Kto4，940billionyenwithroomtemperature
SuPerCOnductors．AIsorankinghighintheincreasewerezero－reSistanceLSIcircuitry，
rising丘om205billionyento3，710billionyen，an18fbldexpansion，and
SuPerCOnductirlgLSI，grOWing29fold，丘om76billionyento2，223billionyen，and
SuPerCOnductingsupercomputers，increaslnginapplicationh・OmZerOtOl，265billionyen
peryear・3
Theaboveareapplicationswhichareprimari1yextensionsofexistingtechnology．
However，aSTheCommitteetoAdvisethePresidentonHighTemperature
Superconductivityhaspointedout，thisisanewmaterialsphenomenaanditmaywellbe
thatthemostsignificantapplicatiorlS”cannotbeidentinedtoday．”4
III．　THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SUPERCONDUCTIVITYINDUSTRY
＿＿＿＿上迫JA里Å旦
Tomorefullyappreciatetheriseofhightemperaturesuperconductivityresearchin
Japan，itishelpfu1tohavesomeunderstandingofhowthelowtemperatureindustry
developed．Howimportantweregovemmentpoliciesandprogramstothedevelopmentof
thisindustry？ThroughwhatpathdidtheprincIPalresearchcentersevoIve？Whatwerethe
relationshipsdevelopedbetweenthenrmsandthegovemmentoramongthenrms
themselves？WhowerethemotivatorsoftheprQjectsandthepolicies？Howwellpoised
3chodendoGijutsugaSangyoShakainiAtaerulnpakutoniKansuruKenkyuHokokusho，
辿吐血j旦口皿位迷由蛙辿喧坦：Tokyo，June1988，P．41．
4TheCommitteetoAdvisethePresidentonHighTemperatureSuperconductivity，地止
工生型匹旦担坦旦旦堅星空嘘旦虚血麺型堅塁匹生型適j迦迎堅墾辿り担』旦旦旦垣＿泣
虫⊇竺匹旦墜垣逗呈出追，Washington，D．C：WhiteHouseScienceCouncil，1988，P．7．
～9－
Tablel．　　PotentialApplicationsofHigherTemperatureSuperconductingMaterials
ElectricPower Transportation／hdustrialMachinery
ElectricityPowerGeneration
TransmissionWire
TranSbnner
I．arge－ScaleElectricPower
Stomge
SMESfbrLoadLevelling
hlHD
Electronics
MagneticallyLevitatedTrain
MagneticPropulsionShip
ElectricallyPoweredShip
ElectricCar
Motor
MagneticSe関rationSystems
ElectromagneticDischargeEquip
FreeElectronI．aser
Mdid
IRSensor
ZeroResistanceSubstrate
Zero－ResistanceLSICircuitry
SuperconductingLSI
SuperconductingSupercomputer
MagneticShielding
Small－ScaleSOR
LowLossCommunicationCable
TelecommunicationsSignal
Processor
ResearchEquipment
NMR－CT
Small－ScaleCyclotron
S（〕Um
Oscilloscope
VoltageStandardEquipment
ElectronMicroscope
I．argeScaleParticleAccelerator
SputteringTargetMaterial
－10－
Table2．　　PrQjectedMarketsfbrHTSMaterialApplications（billionyen）5
CategoryofUse LiquidNitrogen Room Relative
Temperature Temperature Increase
ElectricPower
Transportation／
PlantMachinery
Medical
Electronics
ResearchandOther
Total
282．1（18．2％）
769．4（49．7％）
50．6（3．3％）
442．0（28．5％）
5．1（0．3％）
1，549．2
637．5（6．0％）
7，340．3（69．0％）
85．9（0．8％）
2，536．9（0．3％）
34．0（0．3％）
10，633．6
WaStheindustrytoexploitthenewhightemperaturematerialS？Toprovideinsightinto
thesequestions，abriefhistoryleadingtothediscoveryofHTSispresentedbelow．
Inthishistorywewillseethatthegovemmentwascriticaltothefbrmationand
nurturingoftheindustrythroughbothitstechnologypromotionprogramsandits
PrOCurementS．Thiswasaidedbytheserendipitoustimingofimportantdevelopments
OVerSeaS，bythemultipleusesofthistechnology，andbythefhctthattheprincipaluses
COnSideredwereallapplicationsinwhichthegovernmentwasamaincustomer．
WewillseethattheprincipalnrmstodayiIlwiredevelopmentandinsystems
developmentarethosethathavebeenselectedfbrparticipationingovemmentprQjectsin
SuperCOrlductivitysincetheoutsetofitsdevelopmentinJapan，25yearsago．Andwewi11
Seethatsingleactorswereneverallowedtodominatethegovernmentprqjects．Instead，
threekeyactorsofsimilarcommercialcapabilitieswerecommonlychosenthroughoutthe
historyofthetechnology．
Regardinginter－nrmrelations，Wewillseethatcollaborationcanoccurwhenthere
isatechnicalneedandgovemmentimperative，butthatthenrmsarenurturedasa
COmPetitivesetmorethanacooperativeone．Teclm010gytransfbrfiomoutside
OrganizationswillbeseentobeimportantinthebirthofthisneldintheprlVateSeCtOr，but
thetransfbrisfiomthepublicsector．Evidenceofcompetitivenrmscollaboratingrather
thancompetingwillbemoretheexceptionthantherule．
Regardingimportantmotivatorsofpolicy，WeWillseethatuniversityproftssors
Werekeyingainingsaliencefbrthisneldanditsteclm010gies，andinestablishingtheinitial
5．．chodendoGijutsugaSangyoShakainiAtaerulnpakutoniKansuruKenkyuHokokusho，
Ⅱ魅旦L宝麺旦！址地垣迫：Tokyo，June1988，P．50．
－11－
infbrmationnetwork．Wewillalsoseethatalthoughtheprincipalnegotiationsoccurred
betweenthebureaucracies，nrmS，andadvisorycommittees，theroleofthepoliticianscan
becriticalfbrlargeprqjects．LargetechnologyprQjects，likelargeinfhstructureprQjects，
CanbeareassusceptibletoporkbarTelinginJapanasinanycountry．
Andalthoughtheindu5tryWaSSmall，WeWillseethatthesenrmswereatthe
intemationalstate－Oflthe－artinlowtemperaturesuperconductivitytechnologiesatthetime
of’thediscoveryoftheoxidephenomena．
TheDevelopmentofaSuperconductivityScieneeandTechnology
Base
CryogenicsresearchinJapanistypicallytracedbacktotheworkofProfbssor
HantaroNagaokaattheUniversityinTokyo．6Eadyin1902，Prof．Nagaokapurchasedan
airliquinerfiomtheLindeCompanyofGermanyandwasthenrsttodemonstrateair
liquifhctioninJapan．Atthistime，theJapanesegovemmentwasplacingahighpriorityon
leamingflomthewest，Particularlyinindustryandteclm0logy，andprofbssorswere
SuPpOrtedtoactasthevehiclesofinfbrmationtransfbr．Asaresult，in1910，Prof．
Nagaokawa5abletoattendaconftrenceoftheIrltemationalAssociationofRe丘igeration
（fbundedatKamerlinghOnnes’initiative）inVienna，andimpressedbytheadvancedlevel
Ofthetechnologiesoverseas，retumedtoJapanasaprincipalpromotingthedevelopmentor
adomesticcryogenicindustry．
In1912，Prof．Nagaokasentoneofhisstudents，MasaoKinoshitatoEurope
Where，fbr15years，heconductedresearchincryogenicsandsuperconductivity．When
retumingtoJapan，tOtheInstituteofPhysicalandChemicalResearch（knowntodayas
RIKEN），however，hefbundthathewasnotabletoobtainahydrogenliquinerfbrhis
experiments．HydrogencompressortechnologydidnotexistinJapanandimportationwas
beyondhisbudget，SOhewasonlyabletolectureaboutthediscoveryofthisnew
Phenomenaabroad．Itwasnotuntilthe1930’sthatthenrsthydrogenliquinerbecame
availableinJapan，aunitpurchasedfromGermanyandinstalledattheResearchInstitute
fbrIron，Steel＆OtherMetalsatTohokuUniversity．Thusinitial1eadersin
SuPerCOnductivitycamefiomthislaboratoryinnorthernJapan，andincludedDr．Shinichi
Aoyama（whohadbeensenttoLeideninthelate－1920’S），EizoKanda，andTadao
Fukuroi．
6K．0shimaandY．Aiyama，‘‘TheDevelopmentofCryogenicsinJapan：Chapter14in蜘
Bn吐9【止血幽旦吐追ed．，R．G．ScurIock（SouthamptonUniversity），tObepublished．
－12一
Throughoutthel940’sand1950’S，reSearChinsuperconductivityremainedan
academicinterest，PurSuedatalowlevelof－activity，largelybecauseofthedifncultyof
accumulatingthefbreignexchangeneededtobuyliquifhctionequipment丘omEurope．In
Julyof’1952，thefirstheliumliquinerinJapanwasinstalledatTohokuUniversity．Itwas
aCollinsliquiner（nameda丘eritsdiscovererS．C．CollinsofM．I．T．）manufhcturedby
ArthurD．Little，Inc．，andwaspurchasedwithfundsfiomtheMinistryofEducationwith
theapprovalof－GHQOccupationForces．However，theMinistrywasnotwillingtorelease
fhndsfbrthepurchaseofmorethanonemaehinesothislaboratoryalsohadtoserveasa
nationalliquifhctionusercenter．
In1958ateamatthetheInstituteofScienceandTeclm010gyoftheUniverSityof
Tokyo，undertheleadershipof－proflKei－ichiOshima，SuCCeSSfhllydemonstratedthenrst
domestica11yproducedheliumliquifhctiondevice．Itusedacascadedesignandwas
developedinclosecollaborationwithamajorcryogenicsmanufhcturer，NipponSanso．In
thesameyear，thegovemmentpurchaseditssecondheliumliquiherfromArthurl）．Little，
Inc．fbrinstallationattheElectrotechnicalIpAboratory（ETL）of’theMinistryofIntemational
TradeandIndustry，andin1959athirdwasunitwaspurchaSedbytheR＆DCenterof’
ToshibaCorporation．
Bythelatel950’scompaniesalsobegantonirtwithsuperconductivity，withflms
SuChasMitsubishiElectricandSumitomoElectricinitiatingdevelopmentwofkintoa
Collins－tyPeliquiner．InDecemberof1959Mr．0ginoof－MitsubishiElectricsucceededin
developlnganeXPanSioncyclesystem，andby1963thishadbeendevelopedintoa
COmmerCialdevice．Withanowrateof81ite融10uritwaslargeenoughfbrsmal1scale
laboratoryexperiments．ThenrstdomesticsalewastotheUniversityofTokyo，witha
SeCOndgoingtotheElectrotechnicalL血oTatOry．nOWeVer，nOtOnlywerethesemachines
Stillquiteexpensive，theywereexpensivetooperate．Allof－theheliumhadtobeimported，
andatthistimeheliumwasbothdimculttoacquireandveryexpensive，COStinglO，000
yervliter．
DuringthisperiodortechnologydevelopmentinJapan，Whichcontinuedintothe
mid－1960’S，thetestingof”extremeenvironments”becameapopularthemeamong
researchlaboratories．Thiswasrenectedbythesloganpopularizedatthistime：′′C／10／le710
Cjl0Se〝，′’（ChallengetheExtremes．）Underthisbanner，1aboratoriesexploredphenomena
associatedwithextremesoftemperature，PreSSure，materialstrength，materialpurity，etc・7
7K．Furuto，一．FurukawaDenko，Chodendokenkyukaihatsugurupu，∵担如迅運膣辿Vol．23，N0．
4，1988，PP．225－228．
胃13胃
Notuntiltheearly－1960’S，however，WereSuPerCOnductorsfbrmedwhichcould
carrythecurrentnecessarytobeusedinpracticaldevices．In1961，EugeneKunzler’s
researchteamattheBellI．aboratoriessucceededincreatingaNbSn3magnetWhich
producedafieldof88，000gauss（8．8telsa）withnoresistancetodirectcurrentinthe
windings．Bellresearchersalsosynthesizedaniobiumzirconiumalloywhichappeared
easiertoprocessintowires．Thenin1962，TedBerlincourtatAtomicsInternationalfbund
thatniobium－titaniumhadevenbetterductilityfbrwirefbrmingandwasverydurablein
strongmagneticnelds．Thiswastobecomeaprincipalchoicefbrtheapplicationsthatwere
todeveloplater．
Importantadvanceswerebeingmadesuccessivelynowoverseas，butinfbrmation
diffhsedslowlythroughJapanasthemechanismsfbrdisseminationwhichprolifbrate
today，theassociationsandfrequentsymPOSia，WerenOtaVailablethen．OnJune30，1961，
urldertheleadershipofProfbssorsKanda，Oyama，Oshima，Hatoyama，andKadona，45
individualswereaSSembledtoinitiateaCryogenicEngineersClub（TeionKogakLi
Danwakai），tOShareinfbrmationaboutthedevelopmentsoverseas．8Thegroupwasnrst
administeredoutofProf二Oshima’somceintheNuclearEngineeringDepartmentofthe
UniversityofTokyo．
ItwasalsointhisperiodthatK．MendelssohnwrotetoProf．Oshimaproposing
thatJapansponsorthefirstmq50rintemationa?iasonbetweenenglneerSandscientistsin
theneld：thattheysponsoranIntemationalCryogenicEngineeringConfbrence．To
Organizesuchanactivityandtorecruittheneededfunding，thegrouprealizedthatthe
OmCialbackingofthegovemmentwouldbenecessaryandsodecidedtocreateafbrmal
Organization．InMarch1966，theCryogenicEngineeringAssociationwasfbrmedwiththe
approvalof－MITIandtheScienceandTechnologyAgencyandhadaninitialmembership
Of150members．Pror．Oyamawasitsnrstchairman．InApri11967，theFirst
IntemationalCryogenicEngineeringConftrence（ICEC－I）washeldinKyoto，Japan．
Severalresearchersinterviewednotedthatitwasnotuntilthisconfbrencethatnewsof’the
COmmerCialadvancesinsuperconductivitybecamegenerallyknowninthecountry．
Intheseearlyyears，thetrarlSftrofpersonnelandideasffomavarietyofsources
WaSkeytothedevelopmentoftheindustry．Universities，nationallaboratories，and
fbreignsourcesplayedanimportantroleinintroducingthisneldintocorporate
laboratories．In1958，Dr．K．NakamuraatNihonUniversitylefttoinitiate
8GoheiKanara，〝TeionKogakuKyokaiSetsuritsu，tOOshimaSensei：塑且地，VoJ．24，
N0．1，1989，P．4，andK．0shimaandY．Aiyama，OP．Cit．
胃14－
SuPerCOnductivityresearchatNEC．9Intheearly－1960’S，Dr．T．DoiofHokkaido
UniversityhelpedHitachidevelopwiresoutofsuperconductingmaterialsandDr．S．
MaedamovedtoHitachifromTohokuUniversitytocontinuehisworkin
SuperCOnductivityandmagnetics．AIsointheearly－1960’S，Dr．T．Komatacameto
MitsubishiElectrich・OmOsakaUniversitytoinitiateresearchonsuperconductingmaterials
andDr．M．Iwamotornovedover丘omTokyoUniversitytoinitiatetheresearChinto
magnets・AtFurukawa，areSearCherwassenttoNRJMtoleamaboutsuperconductivityin
1962andretumedayearlatertostartthenrm’sprograminthisarea．AtKobeSteel，Dr．
Asada，thethenDirectoroftheresearchlaboratory，initiatedaprograminsuperconductivity
a負ertakingatourofresearchfhcilitiesintheUnitedStatesin1964．Thereheleamedabout
PrOgreSSmadewithNiobium－basedsuperconductingmaterialsanduponretumlngtOKobe
gavehisstaffsampleshehadcollected，instructingthemtoduplicateanddevelopit．
Itwasalsoinl964thatETLdevelopedthenrstsuperconductingmagnetinJapan，
OneCOnStruCtedofaNbTiTamaterial．
〟dgneOhdroめれα肺C互．柁ergyCo肌er肺11
Theseactivitiesbegantocoalescein1964，Whenthegovemmentinitiated
discussionsoverlaunchinganational1yfhndedprqiecttodevelopanewfbrmofenergy
COnVerSiontechnology：magnetOhydrodynamics（MIID）．Priortothis，bothMITand
ParsonsinGreatBritainhadestablishedMHDR＆Dfhcilities，CreatingasenseinJapanthat
thistechnologywasoneofsignincantpromiseandonewhichmightbeanimportantsource
Ofelectricityfbrthisnationwhichimportsmostofitsenergy・
MHDoffbrsthepotentialofveryhighenergyconversionemcienciesbecauseofthe
extremelyhighsourcetemperature．Verybrieny，inthisprocess，COalisnrstpulverized
intopowderandthenheatedtoaround3，000Katwhichtemperatureitbecomesaplasma．
Thispla5mamOVeSthroughaverylargemagnetthroughwhichenergyisimparted，
acceleratingthenowoftheplasma．Thefhstflowingplasmathenpassesthroughelectrical
COilsandinducesacurrentinthesecoils，prOducingelectricity．Theexhaustgasisstillata
Veryhightemperature，betweenl，100Kandl，800K，andsomeofthisenergyremaining
inthegascanbecapturedinagasturbine．ExperimentsabroadbyAVCOintheearly－
1960’s showedthepossibilityofefncienciesof50－56％withtheoreticalemcienciesbeing
9TheNECprograminsuperconductivityendedin1964，butwasrestartedin1979whena
researcherwasdispatchedtoU・C・Berkeleywherehedidworkinlead－basedsuperconductivity．
ー15－
ashighaS60－70％・TheMHDsystemthusofftredthepossibilityofdoublingthe30％
emcienciesbeingachievedwithcoalpowerplantsatthetime．
Toemcientlycapturethepowerintheplasma，however，amagnetCaPableof
PrOducingaveryhighneldwasrequired．Magnetsfbrausefu1MHDsystemwouldhave
togenerateneldsontheorderof5to7telsa（T）．Conventionalmagnetswerenotsumcient
fbrthispurposebutsuperCOnductingmagnetsheldsuchapromise．Butthiswasstilla
newteclm0logyrequiringasignincantinvestmentbynrmswhichhadverylittleexperience
inthefield．Itwaspreciselyfbrthistypeoftechnology，however，thatMITIwasaboutto
introduceanewprogramfbrtechnologypromotion．
Recal1thatin1961，theI三ngineeringResearchAssociationsystemhadbeen
establishedbyMITItoassistinthedi乱sionorinfbrmationandthepoolingornrm
resourcesfbrthedevelopmentorcommercialtechnologies．Lookingastepfurther，MITI
bureaucratsrealizedthatsomepotentiallysignincanttechnologieswouldentailariskor
investmentthatwastoogreatfbrsinglenrmsintheindustry．Toaddressthisproblem，the
Large－ScaleTechno】ogyPrQject（OgataKogyoG〟tSlJKenkyLlkaiJlatSliSeido）waS
initiatedin1966，withMHDelectricitygenerationbeingchosenasoneofthenrstthemes，
alongwiththeSuper－HighPerfbrmanceElecfronicComputerandtheDesulphuri2ntion
Process．Allthreeofth占seprq1cctSWereinitiallyscheduledfbrnveyears・
Althoughtheprqjectwasplannedfbrnveyears，itsschedulewa5twiCeleTlgthened，
nrsttosevenyearsarldthefltOtenyearStOallowfbrtestirlgthesuperconductingmagnets
inalargeMHDprototypesystem．SevennrmswereinvoIvedintheprojectandthetotal
budgetfbrthe1966－1975perk）doftheprogramwas6・5billionyen・10
Japaneseindustrywas，however，Stillfhrbehindthestate－Of二the－teChnology
OVerSeaS．Giventheverylimitedexperiencethatnrmshadwithsuperconductingmagnets
uptothistime，PrOducing5to7telsamagnetswasasignincantleapbeyondtheir
CaPabilitiesinl966．Technology－baseresearchwouldstillhavetobeconductedon
Stabilizationmethodsfbrsuperconductorsandcoils，materialtestingatlowtemperatures，
turbo－eXpandercharacteristicsfbrheliumrefhgerators，etc．
Aggressivelystudyingdevelopmentsoverseas，however，Signincantlyaccelerated
PrOgreSSinJapanastimelyprogresswasbeingmade．In1965，Dr．Z・J・Steklyandhis
teamatAVCOintheUnitedStateshadsuccessfullydemonstratedtheoperationofahigh
neldsuperconductingmagnet・IncooperationwiththeArgonneNationalI＿Jaboratory，Dr．
Steklyhadshownthatcoppercladdingwasaneffbctivestabilizerfbrthemanufhctureof
10　K．0shimaandY．Aiyama?OP．Cit．，P．18；T．Ueda，′′OgataKogyoGijutsuKenkyukaihatsuSeido
nituite，”二短垣適地VoL5，No・2，1970，P．2；andltaruTodorokiandKozoFushimi，’Ogata
PurojekutoTeionBumonKeikakuGaiyo，〝工！裏狙地Vol．5，N0．2，1970，PP．3－4．
－16一
SuPerCOnductingwiresfbrhighneldmagnets・Itbecameclearerwiththisannouncement
thattheprocessingofsuperconductingmaterialsmightbecomealegitimateactivityfbrthe
nation，scableandwiremanufhcturers・Anditwasaverytimelydevelopmentfbrthestart
OftheJapanesegovernment’snrstnationalresearchanddevelopmentprQjectrelatedto
SuperCOnductivity．Basedonthiswork，Dr．Aiyamanotedthat”R＆DworkfbrtheSCM
（superCOnductingmagnet）intheJapaneseMHDprqjectwasfhirlystraightfbrward．”11
Theyprincipal1yhadtofbllowthepathoftheAVCOsuccess．
Despitethefhctthatallof’themanufhcturerswerewellbehindthestate－0手the－artat
theoutsetoftheprogramandthatfhndamentalquestionsofdevelopmentneededtobe
resoIved，eXaminationoftheorganizationortheprogramshowslittledirectcoopeIation．
TheoverallactivitywastobemanagedbytheElectrotechnicailaboratory（ETL），
withDr．FusaoMoriofETLappointedthenrstDirectorandDr．KozoFushimaofETLthe
SeCOndDirector・ETLwaSreSPOnSiblefbrdevelopingalkWMHDprototype（whichused
anAVCOmagnet），COnductingdesignworkonal，000kWMIIDsystem，andeventually
testingtheoperationofa1，000kWMHDprototype・Theothertasksinhighneldmagnet
developmentandheliumrefdgerationsystemswereassignedtotheparlicipatingnrms．
MitsubishiElectricwa5reSPOnSiblefbra7．0Tpancakecoil，andMitsubishiElectricand
Hitachi，Ltd・SeParatelydeveloped4・5Tsaddle－Shapedcoils・ToshibawaSgivenasmaller
taskofdeveloplngaSImagnet・WorkontheheliumrefhgerationsystemwasthepnncIPal
responsibilityofNipponSansoandToyodaMachine．ThepnmarynrTnSandtheirtaskS
areshownirlFigure2．
Again，theorganizationalpointhereisthatinspiteofconditionSWhichmighthave
fhvoredcollaborationindevelopment，theR＆Dwasconductedindependentlybythe
Participants．Theworkwascontractedseparately，perfbrmedinseparatefhcilities，and
generatedseparatepatents・Severalyearslater，MITItriedtoaddressthiSissuedbyplacing
theLarge－ScaleTechnologyPrqjectsunderthemanagementofcollectivebodies，Of
EngineeringResearchAssociations，butwewillseeintheremaindero自hischapterthat
thishasonlymetwithlimitedsuccess．
Between1972and1975，theETL’sMarkVMHDprototypewa5teStedusinga
race－traCkshapedmagnetwithastoredenergyof60millionjoules，thelargestintheworld
atthetime・Althoughthesystemgenerated500kWitconsumed24MWofthermalenergy
inthecombustor：theenergyflowwaSStillhighlynegative．ExperimentsatETLcontinued
between1976and1983bringingthetotalbudgetoftheMHDactivitvtDll．4billionyen．
11Y・Aiyama・・・ResearchonsuperconductingmagnetsystemforMHDpr〇二ectinJapan：・Fifth
CryogenicEngineeringConference，Surrey，England‥lPCScienceandTeChnologyPress，
1974．
ー17－
Fiscdyeor
196 6 1967 19 6 8 1969 1970 ！97 ！ 1ら72 1973 1974
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一日血chi Ud．
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－Toyo†o MochineWorkS．Lfd．
－柚押OnSo〔SO K．K．
－KobeSlee上Ltd．
－Sumitomo EJecTric
InduSfries，いd．
＊＝ES＝0．35MJ，Wこ＝†0〔；＊2）Es＝4．5MJ，Wニ76柏∩　＊引Esニ60MJ，W＝48加；＊41LHe2501／hr．
Figure2．　DistributionandTimeScheduleofR＆DContractsintheMHDProgIam
MoreimportantlyfbrtheworldofsuperconductivityinJapan，theprqjectallowed
manufhcturerstocatchuptotheintemationalstate－Oflthe－artinhighneldmagnets・For
superconductingmagnetmakers，thiswastheonlysignincantmarketatthetime・The
programhadsuccessfullynurturednrmswhichwould，tOtOday，COntinuetodominatethe
SuperCOnductingmagnetindustryinJapan．Italsonurturedtheirsuppliers，aSHitachi
Cable’snrstsuperconductingwires，fbrexample，developedoutofworkfbrthisprqject
andtookshapeinthe4．5Tmagnet．InthewordsofDr．Aiyama，”Itisnoexaggerationto
Saythatalmostallgroupsnow（in1991）activein1arge－SCalesuperCOnductorapplications
originatedffomandgrewupwiththisprQject．”12
Theprogramalsosuccessfu11yencouIagedother，nOn－Participatingnrmstoinvest
inthetechnology．FujiElectricandFujikurabothindicatedthattheybecameinvoIvedin
SuPerCOnductivityasaresultoftheMHDprqiectandToshibainvestedheavilyinitsown
developmentofahighfieldmagnet．HitachiandKobeSteelbeganin－houseactivityin
12K・OshimaandY・Aiyama”OP・Cit・，P．19．
ー18－
heliumliquifhctionmachines，WhichnlledagapleftbyToyodaMachinewhenthenml
discontinueditsdevelopmentaftertheprQject’scompletion．
Withmagnetdevelopmentprogressingsuccessfu11ythroughtheMIiI）program，
individualsinthe窺eldbegancallingfbramorebroadbasedpromotionofthetechnology’s
use．In1970，Dr．FusaOMorinotedthattheeffbrtinJapanhadfbcussedtooexclusively
OnMHDasanapplication．Hepointedoutthatthereweremanyotherapplications
receivinglittleattentionsuchasaccelerators，fusionenergy，andelectricitygeneration，and
thatonIythroughamorebroadbasedstrategycouldJapancouldrealizethehopeof
surpassingothercountriesinthisneld・13Hisessaywasprescientofdevelopmentsto
COme．
Gm話′（バC′川の！母相仙南i⊥極所Iド症川プ汀／川／バりギ中′1．／‘JIM′l
Theincreaseddomesticcapabilityincryogenictechnologiesledtothegradual
displacementoffbreigntechnologieswiththosethatweredomesticallydeveloped．For
example，OVerthe1960’Sthedomesticcryogenicsindustrydevelopedacompetitive
CaPabilityandgraduaHyincreaseditsmarketshare．Mitsubishieventuallysold290f－its
unitswithsizesranging丘omlto201iter扉110urbetween1963and1970．Howeveras
activityinsuperCOrlductivitypickedupthroughthe1960’S，largermachinesweredesired
andweredevelopedbymanufhcturerssuchasHitachi，NipponSanso，DaidoSansoand
Teisan．RichardBmndtoftheOmceof－NavalRescarchnotedthatbetween1963and
1967，domesticallyproducedliquinersgradual1ydisplacedimportsintheJapaneSemafket，
andaRerl967themarketwasprincipallycomposedofdomesticunits．14
By1970，itwasestimatedthat90groupshadactivesuperconductivityprogramsin
Japan，withabouthalfofthesebeinginuniversitiesarldhalfintheprivatesectorand
govemmentlaboratories．Approximately490fthesegroupshadtheirownhelium
re丘igerators．15
13FusaoMori，〃ChodendoGijutsutoOgataPuro］ekuto，一玉垣地辿，VoJ．5，No．2，1970，P．1．
14RichardBrandt，旦埋旦［！迎旦！担吐血ユ墜虹9拉！旺＿虹麺逆担，ONR－28，Arlington，VA：Ofnceof
NavalResearch，June1971，P．1．
15RichardBrandt，OP・Cit・，P・2；andK・OshimaandY・Aiyama，OP．C汁・P・14．
一19肩
上のedr九bわrCdr
AtaboutthesametimethattheMfDprqjectwasgettingunderway，Japanasa
nationwascelebratingitsnrstpost－WarOPPOrtunitytoretumtotheglobalspotlightby
hostingthe196401ymPicgames．Ithadbeentwentyyearssincethedestructionofthewar
andthenationwantedtoshowthatithadrebuiltitselfandwasreadytordOinthecircleofadvancednations．
ExternallyJapanwasmakingoverturestotheintemationalcommunity
topromoteitsrevivedstatus，With，fbrexample，thegovernmentgivingupitsspecialtrade
statusanditscurrencycontroIstojointheOrganizationfbrEconomicCooperationand
Development（OECD）．Intemally，thegovernmentwasmakingmajorinvestmentsin
infhstruCture，uPgradinggeneralfhcilitiesanditsservices．Animportantsymbolofthe
nation’sadvanCeatthistimewasembodiedintheShinkansen，Orbullettrain，Which
OpenedjustintimefbrthestartoftheOlymPics．
WiththebullettrainrealizedaSthecumulationofadecadeof－development，
engineersattheJapanNationalRailway（JNR）werefhcedwiththequestioI10fwhattodo
next．In1962，aSthebullettrainprqjectwasnearingcompletion，aSmallgroupof
engineersgatheredtoinvestigatealternativeteclm010giesfbrhturevehicularpropulsion．
Onesuchalternativewasamagnetical1ybased，linearmotorpropulsionsystem．Although
theearlyexperimentswereconductedonaverysmallscalewithcoflVentionalmagfletS，it
WaSrealizedthatconventionalmagnetswouldnotprovidethefbrceneededtotransporta
Carfu110fpassengersorh・eightathighspeeds，andbythelate1960’S，thedecisionwas
madetocontinuewiththeprototypedevelopmentofasuperconductinglinearmotorcar・
ThisprqjectalsoinvoIvedaconsortiaoforganiZntionsintheprivatesector，
SOmetimesconductingworkindirectcontractwiththeNationalRailway，andsometimes
COOperativelywithothernrms．Threenrmswereselectedastheprincipaldevelopersofthe
neededsuperconductingmagnets－Toshiba，Hitachi，andMitsubishiElectriC－thesame
magnetdevelopersfbrtheMHDprqject；andthree爪rmswereselectedastheprincipal
developersofthewiresandcables－Furukawa，HitachiChble，andSumitomoElectriC．
Workonaprototypesuperconductinglinearmotorcarbeganin1970withagoal
Ofdemonstratingthetechnologyintwoyearssothatitcouldbeincludedaspartofthe
CelebrationfbrthelOOthAnniversaryofJapanNationalRailwayin1972．InMarchof
l972successhltestswereconductedwitha2．0tontestvehicle，theLSM－200，Which
reachedaspeedof50km41rOnthe220mtesttracksetupintheJNRResearchfhcility．
Engineerswereexcitedoverthesuccessofthistechnologybutwerestillastep
away丘omapublicdemonstrationastheLSM－200wasjustasteelblockonwheels，
lookingmorelikeasteellunchboxthanahafbingerofanadvancedfbrmoftransportation．
－20－
Withthelinearpropulsionsystemproven，engineersconvertedthelunchboxintoasleeklooking4－
SeatCabwhichfloatedoveracentralrailtrack．InOctoberofl972，theML－100
WaSunVeiledatapublicceremonymarkingJNR’slOOthanniversary（MLstandsfbr
magneticlevitationandthelOOsigninedthelOOthAmiversaryoftherailway．）
Theevolutionoftheteclm0logywillbedescribedinmoredetailinoneofthe
fbllowingsectionanalyzingthepoliticsandorganizationoftheprogram．Butbrieny，the
PrqjectcontinuedtoevoIveandwashighlightedbytheperfbrmanceoftheML－500
PrOtOtype，WhichonDecember21，1979reachedawoddrecordspeedof517km血ratthe
Miyazakitestsite．Thelinearmotorcarprogramcontinuestodaywiththetestingof－a44
PaSSengerPrOtOtyPe，theMLU－002，andtheconstructioIlOfa50kn1teSttraCkin
YamanashiPreftcture．Optimisticplanslookfbrtheinitiationofcommercialservice
betweenTokyoandOsakabytheyear2000．
∫伊erCO乃血C血ggkcdcウGどれどmOr
Thenextmajorpr亘iectthatarosewhichinvoIvedtheuseofsuperconducting
elementswasanelectricitygenerationprQjectwithsuperconductingmaterialsusedinthe
generator．In1974MITIprovidedaconditionalloan（hqiokingrant）to2nrms，Mitsubishi
ElectricandFujiElectriC，tOdevelopa6MVAprototypegenerator．1n1977，thiswas
fbllowedbyanve－yearPrOgramfundedthroughasimi1arconditionalloantodevelopa30
MVAgenerator，Withthesametwonrmsastheprincipaldevelopers．Theseprqjects
markedtheonlyoccasionstodateinsuperCOnductivityinwhichcompetingsystems
rnanufhcturersphysicallycooperatedinthehardwaredevelopmentofasuperCOnducting
technology．
Onthesetwoelectricitygeneratorprqiects，thesetwo爪rmsmanagedto
OperationallycooperateintheconstructionorcommorlPrOtOtyPeS．Inthe6MVAprqject，
MitsubishiElectriccontributedthesuperconductingcoilandthestator，andFujiElectric
madethenon－SuPerCOnductingrotor．Thebudgetwassplitroughlyevenlybetweenthe
twonrms，WithMITIproviding120millionyenandthecompaniescontributing410
mi11ionyen，bringingthetotalsystembudgeH0530mi11ioTlyeIl．
Inthe30MVAprqiect，MitsubishiElectricdevelopedthesuperconductingcoil，the
StatOrandhalfofthestatorcoils，andtheheliumrefhgerationequipment．F可iElectric
againmadethenon－SuperCOnductingrotorandhalfofthestatorcoils．ForthisprQject，
rough1yallofthecontributionsdoubledwithMITIproviding250millionyen，andthe
nrms820million，bringingtheprqiecttotaltol．07billionyen．ThebudgetswereagaiTI
SPlitrough1yinhalfbetweenthetwonrms．
ー21－
Germany，KWU
藩
串
USSR
Japan　ミ缶Hitachi
妄缶
GEミロ≒q‥USSR
Japan
Westinghouse恭
啓　　車
MIT USSR
串
USSR　幕
France
1970　　　1975 1980　　　1985　　　1990　　　1995
Year
Figure3．　ProgressofSuperCOnductorGeneIatOrDevelopmentinVariousCountries
InbothprqjectstheunitswereassembledattheMitsubishiElectricplant．
ParticipantscommentedthatitiswasanunuSualinstanceofcompetitorsactual1y
COOPeratingwithoutsignincantconflict．Participantsnotedthatam可OrreaSOnfbrthelack
Ofconflictwastheimmaturestateoftheteclm01ogyinthewodd，particularlyinJapan．
Befbretheprqject，FujiElectrichadexperimentedwiththedevelopmentofa30KVA
model，Toshibawasdevelopingasinglepole3MWmodel，andHitachihadjustbegun
Withbasicstudiesofthetechnology．Therewerenoleadersintheneldinthecountry，
applicationwascleadyfhrinthefuture，andsaleswouldbetoalimited，gOVernment
regulatedmafket．MitsubishiElectricandFttiiElectricwereselectedbecausethesetwo
nrmswerewi11irlgtObearthegreaterthan75％costsharingrequestedbythegovemment．
TheseprQjectskeptJapaninpacewithintemationaldevelopmentsandeventual1y
ledtothecreationoftheSUPERGMprQject．Initiatedinl988，theSuperGMPrqjecthas
thegoalsofdeveloping70MVAprototypefhstreactionandslowreactiongeneratorsin
PreParationfbrscaleuptoa200MVAprototypewhosedevelopmentwouldbeginin1996．
Them毎OrdevelopersofthesuperconductingcomponentswereagainMitsubishi，Toshiba，
andHitachi，withmostofthem可OrCablemanufhcturersalsoinvoIved．
ー22－
Thegeneralprogressofsuperconductinggeneratordevelopmentworldwideis
SketchedinFigure3．
∫〟perCOn血C血g￡JeC細れdgJleJfcP叩〟血の乃∫力わ
Anotherprqjecttobeginsignincantdevelopmentintheearly－1970’sisthe
electromagneticpropulsion（EMP）ship・Unlikeconventionalpropellorpropulsion，this
designtakesadvantageofastationaryelectromagrleticthnlStSyStem．hthissystem，a
Currentisinducedinseawaterviaelectrodes，withtheseawaterthenpassingthrougha
POWerfu1magnet．Theinteractionofthecurrentandthemagneticneldresultsin
momentumbeingimpartedtothewater，Whichappearsasthrusttopropeltheship．One
majoradvantageofthisdesignisanincreaseinspeed・Whereaspropellordrivenships
haveaspeedlimitofaround40knots，theEMPshiphasatoptheoreticalspeedoflOO
bots．
Aswasthecasewitheachoftheprevioustechnologiesdiscussedhere，theideafbr
thispropulsiondesignwasbomabroad・ThenrstpatentwasnledintheUnitedStatesby
W・A・Ricein1961・By1966，S・WayatWestinghousedemonstratedasmallmodelship
Whichusednormalconductingmagnetsfbrpracticalapplications．However，their
Calculationsrevealedthatextremelyhighmagneticneldswouldbeneeded，andthesecould
Onlybedeliveredbysuperconductingmagnets．
TheniTltheearly－1970’S，areSearChteamcombinirlguniversityandindustrial
laboratoriesinitiatedexperimentsinJapan．KawasakiHeavyIndustries，OsakaUniversity
andKobeUniversitybeganthenrstprototypeaCtivityinJapan．Thiswotkwaslargely
fhndedbytheMinistryofEducation’sSpecialPrqjectResearchGrants．
Theirworkledin1976tothenrstdemonstrationofasuperconductingEMPship，
theSMED－1・Thistestprototypeusedasmal1superconductingcoilandwasprincipally
COnStruCtedasaprooforconceptmodel．Theprototypewasimprovedtoamoretruetolifb
Shipdesign，andinAugustl979theST－500wastestrunintheopenwater．TheST－500
WaS3・6meterslong，Weighed700kg，uSeda2．0telsasuperconductingmagnetmadeby
KawasakiHeavyIndustries，andhadaspeedofl．75knots．
DevelopmentinJapanoftheEMPshipacceleratedinJuneof1985whentheJapan
FoundationfbrShipbuildingAdvancementinitiatedamoreambitiousprototype
developmentprogram・UndertheirSuperconductingElectromagneticPropulsionShip
StudyCommitteeandwithnnancirlg丘omtheJapanShipbuildingIndustryFoundation，
theybegandevelopmentoftheYamatoIexperimentalship・TheYamatoIisdesignedto
CarrylOpassengersandis30meterslong，Weight150tons，andwilltravelat8knots
胃23－
usingtwosuperconductingmagnetswithastrengthof4telsa・ThesuperCOnductingcoils
wereprovidedbyToshibaandMitsubi血iHeavyIndustries，withMitsubishiHeavy
Industriesalsoinchargeofoveral1shipconstruction．Theoveral1costofconstructingthe
shipisestimatedat3billionyen，16andseatestingoftheprototypeisscheduledtobeginin
earlyl992．
戌g九g乃ど堵yPd而cJeAccele用わr
ThelargestofthesewasthenationalprqiectinvoIvingtheuseofsuperCOnductin
materialsfbrtheresearchofparticlephysicsattheNationalIAboratoryfbrHigh－Energy
Physics（Ko－E′lerugiButsurigakuKenkyLdo，KEK）inTsukuba・Heresuperconducting
magnetsprovideboththehighneldsnecessaryfbracceleration，aSWellasfbrparticle
detection・A12GeVsynchrotronwascompletedin1976withthedeliveryofthenrst
superconductingmagnet，aMuonChannelMagnetmanufhcturedbyFurukawaElectricin
1980．Betweenl981and1985，fburothersuperconductingmagnetswereadded，One
manufhcturedbyMitsubishiElectriC，OnebyHitachi，andtheothertwobyFurukawa
ElectriC，andin1986theTRISTANfhcility，anelectron－POSitroncollidingaccelerator，WaS
completed・By1991thefhcilityhadincorporated17superconductingmagnetsanda
superconductingcavityfbrarangeofphysicsexperiments・MitsubishiElectricand
Toshibaeachsuppliedatotaloffburmagnets，Hitachithree，FurukawaElectricthree，
Ishikawqjima－Harimaone，andKEKitselfmanufhcturedtwo．Alistofthemagnetsis
PrOVidedinAppendixA．
凡JCねαrF〟∫0乃
Thelargestpotentialmarketfbrsuperconductingmaterialsingeneralmaybeitsuse
innuclearfusion，iftheprocessiseverrealized．MainstreamresearchinthisareainvoIves
thefusionofdeutriumatomsordeutriumandtritiumatomsatextremelyhightemperatures．
lnthisprocesstheatomsareheatedtoextremelyhightemperaturesuntiltheelectronsare
Strippedo札creatingaplasmaof丘eeelectronsandatomicnuclei・Undernormal
conditionsthesenucleiwouldrepeleachotherbecauseoftheircommonpositivecharge・
Howeverthehightemperaturesinthereactorexcitethesenuclei，impellingthemtosmash
intoeachotherathighspeedsandfusingintoonenuclei．Thisfusionreleasesalarge
amountofkineticenergyintheneutronscreated，andthisenergycanbecapturedand
16”SekaihatsunoChodendoSen，”YomiuriShimbun，June12，1991．
胃24－
COnVertedintoheatandelectricity・Toadlievethefusionreaction，however，temperatureS
OntheorderofalmndredofmilliondegreesKelvinarerequired．
Thetemperaturesaresohighthattheprocesscannotbecontainedbysolidsurfhces，
asthesesurfhceswouldmelt．Tocontainthefusionreaction，then，SCientistshavetumedto
theuseofhighmagneticnelds．
BecauseneldsgreaterthanlOtelsaarerequired，nOrmalmagnetsareinadequatefbr
fusioncontainment．Instead，SuPerCOnductingmagnetsmustbeusedtoachievethe
COnditionsneeded．Evenwiththeneldintensitiesmadeavailablethroughsuperconducting
magnets，theoverallmagneticsystemisanticipatedtobeverylarge，greaterthanl0，000
tons，WhichisonehalfthetotaldesignweightofJapan’splannedFusionExperimental
Reactor（FER）．Withaconventionalmagnet，jouleheatinginthemagnetwouldleadtoa
SyStemrequiring2，000MWofpower，Whichwouldbenvetimesthethermaloutputofthe
reactor．Withasuperconductingsystem，theelectricpowerneededfbrthehelium
refhgerationsystemwouldbearound30MW．17
PlansfbranuclearfbsionprograminJapanbegantoacceleratesoonaftertheoil
Shockoftheearly1970’S．AnAdvisoryCommitteeonNuclearFusionhadbeen
establishedin1958withintheAtomicPowerCommission，andin1968aBasicProgram
fbrResearchandDevelopmentofNuclearFusionwasissuedbythethenrenamedAtomic
EnergyCommission・However，itwasnotuntilthemid－1980’sthattheactivityrosetothe
pri0rityofasignincantnationalprqject．
Intheautumnofl974theIntemationalEnergyAgency（IEA）wasestablishedinthe
OrganizationfbrEconomicCooperationandDevelopment（OECD），andwithintheIEAa
FusionPowerCoordinatingCommitteewascreated．Themandateofthecommitteewasto
COmeuPWithaproposalfbrinteractioncoopeIationinR＆I）．Duringthesameperiod，a
FusionCouncilwasestablishedintheJapanAtomicEnergyCommissionanddiscussions
WereinitiatedoverafhsionR＆Dstrategy．18Thenin1975，theNuclearPowerAdvisory
CommitteetotheJapanAtomicEnergyResearchInstitute（JAERI）recommendedthe
initiationofanationaleffbrttopursuefusionasanenergysourcefbrthenation’Sfuture．
InMarchofl975theIEAcameupwithR＆Dproposalswhichincludedahrge
CoilTask（LCT），aPrOgramintendedtotestatoroidalarrangementoflarge
SuperCOnductingcoils．JapanjoinedtheUnitedStates，Euratom，andSwitzerlandandthe
17S・Shimamoto，・・DeveJopmentofSuperconductingMagnetforFusionPower，dPresentedat
FirstlnternationalConferenceonHighTemperatureSuperconductiv吋，August28－31，1988，
Nagoya，Japan，PP．4349．
18K・OshimaandY・Aiyama”OP・Cit・，P・22－24・
一25－
LCTprogramWaSStartedin1977・Prof二Yasukochi，ProftssoratNihonUniversityand
ChairmanOftheSuperCOnductingMaterialsSubcommitteeintheFusionCouncil，tOOkthe
leadinplanningJapan’sparticipation，withtheadmimistrationfbrmal1yshiftingtoanew
SuperconductingMaterialsSectionintheFusionDivisionoftheJapanAtomicEnergy
ResearchInstitute．Dr．S．Shimamotowasitsnrsthead．
WithJAERIinchargeofthetoroidalneldsystemandHitachi，Ltd・reSpOnSiblefbr
manufhcturingtheNbSn3magnet，theLCTcoilwasdeliveredtothetestsiteattheOak
RidgeNationalIJaboratoryintheUntiedStatesinNovemberl982．Itwastestedalong
Withfivemagnetsfiomothercountriesandthecoilproduceda12telsaneldat6・5kA・
WhilethetoroidalcoilsystemwasbeingdevelopedbyJAERI，ETLtooktheinitial
leadinpoloidalcoildevelopment．A4MJcoilwasdevelopedintheearly1980’S，after
WhichtimethetechnologywastransfbrredtotheJAERIDemonstrationPoloidalCoil
Program．ThecoilwasmanufhcturedbyMitsubishiElectricandwasdesignedtohavea
StOredenergyof40MJandapulsedneldrateof7telsa在econd．
ln1986，theTriamfhsionreactor，Japan’sTokamakmachine，begaT10Perationat
KyushuUniversity．Thereactorisdesignedwithastoredenergyof76MJanda
maximumneldoflltelsa．TheToroidalmagnetismadeofNbSn3，manufhcturedby
Hitachi，andhaSaCurrentCaPaCityof6，000A．Inearlytestsitgeneratedaplasmacurrent
orO．5MA．
InthisperiodtheMinistryofEducationalsojoinedinpromotingtheneld，initiating
al0－yearFusionResearchProgramthroughtheSpeCialResearchPrqjectFundin1980．
0verthelOyearterm，7．145billionyeninresearchgrantsweredistributedthroughthis
progmm・19
J〟pgrCO乃血cf肺e〟d乃山間gJeCけ0乃ic∫－〟i肺Jり可g血CのOn
In1979，thenrstgovemmentprqjectdirectedtowardelectronicsapplicationsof
SuperCOnductivitywasinitiatedbytheMinistryofEducation．Thiswasaspecialresearch
PrOgramOn”SuperconductiveQuantumElectronics”andwasfundedat681millionyen
OVerthreeyears．Eachyeartherewereanaverageof25themeswitheachthemeinvoIving
aboutfiveresearchers，andwiththem互iorityoftheresearchfbcussingonthefhbricationof
Josephsonjunctions．Theresearchersexperimentedwithavarietyofleadandniobium
19”KakuyogoTokubetsuSogoSokatsuhanJigyoHokoku迷姐地建迦血痕址遇弛由建適軋
Tokyo：Monbusho，1980－1989．
一26－
alloysandjunctiontypes，SuChastunneljunctionsandtunnelandcoplanarbridge
junctions．
Oneofthemoreimportanteffbctsofthisprogramwasthatitprovidedabaseof
domesticexperiencewiththisteclm0logy，andasourceofdata丘omwhichsubsequent
Prqjectscoulddraw・KoHara，Prqjectleader，nOtedthat”Asaresultofthespecialresearch
Pr亘iect，thelaboratoriesofNTT，MITIandindustryhavenowbeguntheirownresearch
PrOgramS・Wehaveagoodexpansionoftheresearchworksincetheprqjectbegan．，，20
〟月T∫呼erCO〝撃〟柁rPrのeCトJo∫甲九0乃九乃CfO乃∫
MITI’snrstprogramaddressingsuperconductingeiectronicdevicesbegantOtake
fbrmin1980asitwasinvestigatirlgneWOPtionstoincreasethepoweroflarge－SCale
COmPuterS・Bythemid－1970’sIBMhaddevelopedaratherlarge－SCaleeffbrttodevelop
Josephsonjunctiontechnologyasameansofattainingfhsterswitchingspeedsintheir
COmPuterS・ByusingJosephsonjunctionsratherthansemiconductors，theswitchingspeed
Cantheoretical1ybereducedby100－fbld，therebyvastlyimprovingthecomputingpowerof
acomputer・
TheJapanesegovemmentandthem毎OrCOmPuternmShadspenttheprevioustwo
decadesusingIBMasatargetandinspirationfbrtheirpolicies，21andthistechnologywas
anotherintheline．In1981，MITIinitiatedalOyearlongSupercomputerPrqiectunderits
Large－ScaleR＆DPrQjectsystemtohelpJapanesenrms’’catchup’’withIBM．Aspartof
thisprQject，theresearchersinvestigatedthreetypesofswitchingdevices，Ofwhichthe
Josephsonjunctionwasone．TheworkonthisJosephsorljunctiontechnologywillbe
exploredinmoredetaillater．
〃oveJ∫岬grCO乃血C血g肋JeridJ∫－〟i′のり〆どのCの0乃
In1981，Prof．K．YasukochiconvincedtheMinistryofEducationtosponsortwo
WOrkshopstodiscussthepossibilityofabroaderprogramtosearchfbrsuperconductivity
innewmaterialS．Prof．Yasukochihadaninterestinthelargenumberofnon－rePrOducible
reportsofhighertemperaturesuperconductivityandfbltthatasystematicprogramto
investigatealtemativematerialswouldbeveryusefulinsortingouttheirpromise．Thenrst
20KoHara、Proceedin sofS m osiumonSu erconductiveQuantumEtectronics Con†erence
heldatthelnternationalHouseofJapan，August30－31，1982．Tokyo：MinistryofEducation．
21MarieAnchordoguy，工b旦＿S強迫j坦旦エ垣上垣蛙堕通塾虚埴＿旦址己短さ堕［吐出狙建主星9皿凶垣［
辿也Ph．D．Dissertation，1986．
胃27胃
WOrkshopwastitledNovelTypesofSuperconductivityandwasfbllowedin1982bya
SeCOndworkshoptitledNewSuperconductingMaterialS・Duringthenrstworkshop
researchonsuperCOnductivityathomeandabroadwasreviewedtoclarifythestateof
researchinthisneld．Researchersconcludedthatintheasesofvirtuallyallnovel
materials，SudlaStemaryCOmPOunds，inorgamics，Organics，andamorphousnlms，there
WereSignificantshortcomingsinthetheoriesofmaterialbehavior．Thusanyfurtherwork
intheneldneededtocouplethetheoreticalandexperimentalwork．Atthesecond
WOfkshop，reSearCheISPreSentedplanstoexpandresearchinthisneld，withafbrmal
PrOpOSalbeingsubmittedtotheMOEin1983．22
In1984theMOElaunchedathreeyearprogramtOSuPPOrtthesearchfbrnew
SuPerCOnductingmaterialS．Thiswasthenrstm毎OrgOVemmentPrOgramWhichhadasone
OfitsexplicitgoalsthediscoveryofmaterialsthatsupercoIlductathightemperatures，with
theeventualhopeof丘ldingamaterialthatsuperconductsatroomtemperature．Itwas
underfunding丘omthisprogramthatProf．Tanakaconductedhisexperimentswhich
COnnrmedtheIBM－Zurichdiscovery．
Atthispointthetechnologywasgaininggreaterrecognitionasonethatcouldbe
realisticallyappliedtoavarietyofsystemsanddevices，withthema正etsfbr
SuPerCOnductingcablesandwirescontinuingtogrow．
ダir∫fg呼erC（用血C血g上）eVice♪rd瑚OrCom〝1どγC血相ね止れ
〟dgndc尺e∫0乃α乃Ce血αgJ〝g
In1984，thenrstJapanesenrmenteredtheMagneticResonancelmaging（MRl）
market，aCOmmerCialtechnologywhoseperfbrmancecanbesubstantial1yupgradedwith
theuseofasuperconductingmagnet．Inthisyear，FurukawaElectricteamedwithOxfbrd
TechnologiesandbeganmanufhcturingandmarketingMRIdevicesinJapan．Soonafter，
SeVeralotherJapanesenrmsintroducedtheirownversions，andinthelate－1980’ssales
grewrapidly．
MRIworksbytakingadvantageoflargeneldmagnetstoproduceimagesof
tissuesiTlthehumanbody．23ITlthistechnique，amagneticneldisnrstappliedtothe
22SakaoNakajima，“HistoricalSurvey：塾琶幽地山垣短軸垣」去蛤巳＿S如堅ユS．Nakajima
andH．Fukuyamaeds．，Tokyo：JapaneseJournalofAppliedPhysics，1988，PP．lJl．－V．
23ThisdescriptionwasaidedbyverycJearandmoredetaileddescriptionsprovidedin
PublicationsincludingthefollOWlng：RandySimonandAndrewSmith，塾迫旦［匹［唾些！旦！旦New
York：PlenumPress，1988，PP．203－210；andChirtT．Moonen，et．ar．，FunctionaLMagnetic
ResonancelmaglnginMedicineandPhysiology：旦⊆垣口旦蔓，Vol．250，October5，1990，p．p．53－
－28－
regionofthebodytobeimaged・Thiscausesatomsinthebody，mOStnObblythe
hydrogenatoms，tOalignwiththeneld・Thenabriefburstofenergyisappliedtoscramble
theatomicalignments・Whenthepulseofenergyceases，theatomsretumtoalignment
Withthemagneticneld，andwhenthishappens，aSmallamountofenergylSreleased．The
丘equencyoftheenergydependsonthetypeofatomemittingtheenergy．Inaddition，the
SPeedatwhichthesemoleculesretumtotheiralignmentsishigh1yinnuencedbythelocal
Chemicalenvironmentandthemobilityofthemolecules．Thusbymeasuringthe
Characteristicsofatomicrealignmentthecompositionofthetissuecanbeimaged．
MRIcomplementstheuseofX－Rayanalysisandprovidesamoredetailedmapof
tissuethanavailablewithultrasound．X－Raysarestilltheprefbrredteclmiquefbr
examinationoffhcturesandskeletalのnormalities，buttissueislargelytransparenttothis
technique．AndunlikeMRI，X－Raystendtodamagecellsinthebodywhenapplied．
UltrasoundisatissueimagingteclmiquelikeMRIandisalsononinvasive，butdoesnot
OtTbrspatialresolutionthatisashigh．Ultra50und，fbrexample，hasdimcultyinimaglng
deepandsmallvessels，Particularlythosenearthebone．
TheapplicationofMRIrequiresthatrelativelyhighmagneticneldsbeavailableto
Obtainthedesiredatomicmovementsdescribedal）OVe．Thesehighneldmagnetsdonot
havetobesuperconducting，andinfhct，thenrstcommercialMRIunitsusedconventional
magnets．However，themagneticneldmustnotonlybestrongandunifbrm，butmustbe
Stable，Withvariationsoflessthanonepartinami11ionfbrperiodsthatcanbelongerthan
anhour．ThepersistentcurrerltSinsuperconductingmagnetsprovidesuchanabilityto
keepneldsconstant．Inaddition，SuPerCOnductingmagnetsaremorecompactand
lightweightthanconventionalmagnets，Whichmakesthemaccessibleandeasiertoinstallin
existinghospitalspaces．CurrentneldstrengthsusedinMRIdevicesrangefromO．5telsa
to2．Otelsa，WithJapanesemanufhcturersparticularlystronginthemanufhcturerofthe
smallermachines．
Animportantpointinthedevelopmentofthistechnologyisthatinthismarket，
Whichwouldsoonbecomethelargestmafketfbranapplicationofsuperconductivity，the
govemmenthadnodirectpromotionalpolicies：thismarketwa5nOtaidedbygovemment
fbresight．However，themanufhcturersofthesuperCOnductingmagnetsandtheleading
MRImanufhcturersarethesamenrmsthathavebeenraisedonpastsuperconductivity
PrOgramS．Bymaintainingasetofcompetitivenrmsinthisgenerictechnology，the
governmentindirectlyaidedtheirtimelyandsuccessfu1entryintothisneld．
61；andJuriMatisoo∵TheSuperconductingComputer，”塾迫吐鍵血塊担lMay1980，PP．38－
53．
ー29胃
∫〟PerCOn血C血g肋g乃dcどれeW∫rordge
Intheearly－1980’S，againspurredbyactivityoversefLS，utilitiesandnrmSbeganto
takeamoreseri0usinterestintheuseofsuperconductorsfbrenergystorage．
SuperconductingMagnetEnergyStorage（SMES），PrOVidesaveryemcientaltemativeto
thestorageofenergywhichisparticularlyattractivetopowerutilities・Duringthecourseof
theday，thedemandfbrelectricitycanvarygreatly，beinghighonamid－Summer
aftemoon，fbrexample，Whenairconditioninguseishigh，andlowinthemiddleofthe
night，Whenmostofthecountryisasleep．Toaccommodatethesechanges，plantsmustbe
operatedatlessthanCapaCityormustemploysupplementarypowerequipment，Whichis
lessemcientthantheprimarygenerationequipment．Anotheroptionistoruntheplantsat
fullcapacityaroundtheclock，andtostoretheenergywhenthedemandislowsothatitcan
beusedlaterwhendemandpeaks，aPrOCeSSknownas”peakleveling．”
Pumpedwaterstorageiscommonlyusedfbrsuchapurpose．Inthisschemewhere
waterispumpedfromalowerreservOirtoanelevatedreservoirduringperiodsoflow
electricitydemandandreleasedtorunbackdownthroughhydroturbineswhendemandis
high．However，Whereastheemciencyofapumpedhydrosystemistypicallyontheorder
Of65－75％，theemciencyofaSMESsystemcanbehigherthan90％・
In1986，35nrmsandutilitiesjoinedtofbrmthe”ChodendoEnerugiChozo
Kenkyukai，”（ResearchAssociationofSuperconductingMagneticEnergyStorage
（RASMES））．ThepurposeoftheAssociatioIIWaStOdifnLSeiflfbrmationaboutthe
technology，lobbyfbrsupportofthisteclm0logy丘omthegovemment，andtoproposea
Strategyfbrthenatiorlaldevelopmentofthetechnology．
Theinitialmembersoftheassociationincludedsixutilityorganizations，tWelve
manufhcturers，eightconstructionnrms andfburconsultingcompanies．Studiesthathave
beenconductedbytheassociationhaveincludedtheplanningofa50MJtestplant，a20
MWhprototypeplant，anda5GWhcommercialplantwithapplicationofSMEStothe
powersystem・
Inanattempttoprodthegovernmentintoaction，theassociationpresenteda10－
yearSMESdevelopmentplaninJuneofl989whichcalledfbrtheprototypedevelopment
Of－completel00－1，000kWandl，000－10，000kWSMESsystems．Thebudgetproposed
WaS40－50billionyen．24
24’’DenryokuChozosochilOnendeJitsuyoka：金運虹地，June22，1989，P．1．
－　30　－
Inthelate－1980’S，nrmSandutilitiesbegantocooperativelyinvestinhardwareto
beginsmallscaleprototypetestingtodemonstratethefiasibilityofthetechnology．h
1988，ChubuElectricUtilityjoinedwithHitachitodevelopalMJSMESconstructedwith
apulsedsuperconductingmagnet・In1991，theElectricPowerDevelopmentCompany
joinedToshibatodevelopal6kJdevice，andalsoinl991MitsubishiElectriCin
COOPerationwithKansaiElectricPowerbeganexperimentswithalOkJprototype．25
（〇皇U的已c】S訟しぎ田U叫；UぎΣ
Figure4．　ProgressofSuperCOnductingMagneticFieldStrength
（Adapted丘omShimpeiMatsuda，et．al．，”HitachiSeisakushono
ChodendoGijutsunoTenbo，”坦圭主型垣上知型辺，Vol．71，July1989，P．4）
25HidekiFujita，〃PowerSystemControlExperimentUsinglMJSMES，Proceedingsofthe2nd
lnternationalSymposiumonSuperconductiv吋（］SS’89），November14－17，1989，PP．1041－
1046；〝Denhatsu－ToshibagaShikin－ChodendoEnerugiChozosochi：Ⅱ蛙旦L塁麺皿迎旦旦吐血塾凪
February4，1991，P．17；anCドChodendoChikudenwoJishaJikken，’地鎚但旦b止血担，
June12，1991，P．19．
－31－
A魚erasubsequentyearofnegotiation，aCOreSetOftwentynrmswerefbrmedinto
aResearchAssociationwithcommitmentextracted丘omMITIfora10－yearSMES
researchanddevelopmentprQjectundertheMoonlightProgram．26Again，theprincipal
SupPliersofsuperconductingtechnologywillbeHitachi，Toshiba，HitachiCable，
Furukawa，andSumitomoElectriC．Thegoaloftheprqiectistodevelopal00kW－hr
prototype．Theoverallprqjectfundingisestimatedtobe25billionyen．
血creαのgg坤erCO乃血C血g〟d即融C岬の倣肺
Throughthecombinationoftechnologypromotionprogramsandtechnology
purchasing一throughacombinationoftechnologypushanddemandpull－theperfbrmance
OflargesuperconductingmagnetsinJapansteadilyincreasedoverthepasttwodecades．
Throughcontinuoussupportof’thesamesetofのbleandwiremanufhcturersandsameset
Ofsystemsdevelopers，andthroughcontinuinginnovationinthesenrms，theindustryin
JapanisnowproduciElgafgLLablythebesttechno】ogyintheworld．Theprogressof
magneticstrengthandenergylevelovertimeissummarizedinFigure4．
ThelevelsofperfbrmanCeCanbeexpectedtocontinuetoincreaseasdemanding
usessuchasNuclearFusionandMagneticEnergyStoragecontinuetoadvance．Nuclear
Fusion，fbrexampleisinthemidstofam可Ordevelopmentandtestingprogram．Forthe
nextstageoffusionexperiments，JAERIisinthemiddleof－itsJT－60program．ThisTable
invoIvesdevelopinga12Tlargediameter（10－15m）DCtoroidalcoil，a7Tlargediameter
（5－20m）pulsepoloidalcoil，anda12－13Tlargediameter（3－4m）pulsesolonoidcoil．27
ThisprQjectwillalsobringadvancesintheaccompanyingcryogenictechnologyas300
Mlr，1，200Wheliumrefhgeratordevelopedin1981willhavetobescaleduptoa3，000
∽lr，10kwunitfbrexperimentsplannedintheearly－1990’S，andeventuallytoa9，000Vhr，
30kWunitanerl996fbrtheFusionExperimentalReactor．28
FimCo几Ce融rのon，わ〟は如JeCooperの0乃
Inourdiscussionofthehistoryofsuperconductivity，WenOtedthatanumberof
R＆DprogramshavebeensupportedbythegovernmentwhichinvoIvedthedevelopment
OfLTS．Table3summarizedtheprincipalparticipantsingovemmentprogramsinvoIving
26TheresponsefromMmisthattheprqjectisptannedintwodistinctphases，WithonJythefirst
fiveyearphasereceivingMmcommitmentattheoutset．
27Gens屈γ0血侮∩ゆ叫0，．伯方岬叩0侮∩吋U伯伽bUnOGe′舟．June1990．
28Gens柄γ0仙Ken吋母0，．侮kUy岬OKen吋UKの／価SUnOGe／ガ0198ダ，P．90．
ー32－
Table3． PrimaryFirmsinGovemmentProgramsThatInvoIvedtheDevelopmentor
UseofSuperconductingMaterials
Prqject Firms
MagnetohydrodynamicGenerator
LinearMotorCar
6MVAGenerator
30MVAGenerator
Supercomputer－
JosephsonJunctions
ElectromagneticPropulsionShip
SuperGM（70MVAGenerators）
SuperconductingMagneticEnergy
Storage
HitachiLtd．，MitsubishiElectric
HitachiLtd．，MitsubishiElectriC，
Toshiba
FujiElectriC，MitsubishiElectric
FujiElectriC，MitsubishiElectric
HitachiLtd．，Fttjitsu，NEC
Toshiba，MitsubishiHeavyInd．
HitachiLtd．，MitsubishiElectric
Toshib
Many
thedevelopmentofLTSwhichwereinitiatedbefbre1986．
Inallcases，COOrdinationprimari1ytookthefbrmofdividingtheresponsibilitiesfbr
tasksbetweentheprincipalperfbrmers．Thisbriefreviewofhistoryshowthatasageneral
ru1ecooperationdidnotinvoIveworkatacommonfhcilitynordiditinvoIvedependencies
betweennrmswithcompetitivemarketinterests．competitorsconductedtheirR＆D
SeParately．Inthecasestudiesthatfbllowinlatersectionsofthisreport，Iwillexamine
evidenceofcollaborationbetweencompetitorsinmoredetai1．
Sul11111こ廷ゝ
ThisdiscussionofthehistoryoftheLTSindustryinJapan，hasattemptedto
providesomesenseoftherangeofprqjectsandpoliciesthathavecontributingtobuilding
uptheindustryoftoday．Wedonotseeanoverarchingcentralpolicytodevelopthis
material，butanumberofdiffbrentprqiectssponsoredbyanumberofdiffbrent
Organizationstoexploittheadvantagesofthismaterial’sperfbrmancefbrspecincuses．
ー33胃
Weseethatthesamepnncipalorganizationsaren・equentlyinvoIvedinsupplying
thesuperCOnductingsystemsacrossthevarioustechnologies，andthatthereareusually
severalnrmsinvoIved，nOtjustone．Itwouldbeamistakehowever，tOCOnCludethat
continuedparticipationisguafanteedbythegovemment・F可iElectricwasoneofthenrst
oftheJapanesenrmstowofkwithMITIonearlyprototypeSOfthesuperconducting
generatorintheeady－1970’S，butitgraduallylostitsfbotingascompetingnrmsinvested
moreinthistechnologyandwasmostrecentlyexcluded丘omtheSuperGMProgram・
Althoughparticipationinthegovernmentprogramprovidessomebarriertoentry
fbrtheparticipants，thisisnotnecessarilysofbrsystemsdevelopersinnewmarkets・The
MRImarkethasdevelopedwithalmostnodirectaid丘omthegovemment・Although1ed
bynrmstraditionallystronginsuperconductivitysuchasHitachiarldToshiba，neWCOmerS
suchasShimadzuare丘ndingthistobeaprontablemarket，andoldtimerssuchasFuji
Electricarenndingthatinspiteoftheirexperience，aShortlagintryingtoenterthismad（et
hasmadepenetrationverydimcult．
Bytheendof1986，then，aVarietyofpubliclysupportedprqjectshadthecombined
effbctsofestablishingasmallbutintemational1ycompetitivesuperconductivityindustry
COmPOSedofthenation’smajorcableandwiremakersandsystemsmanufhcturers・Rather
thanprimarilythroughateclmologypushofthematerial’sdevelopment，however，the
industryalsogrewthroughprocurementsingovemmentprqjects．AsRichardBrandt
notedinhisreporttotheOfnceofNavalResearchin1971，fbrexample，theMHDprqject
PrOVidedamarketthatenabledparticipationinsuperconductivitybyanumberof－nrms，
whichwouldnothavebeenpossiblewiththeotherwiselimitedmarket・29Thepullof
govemmentprocurementhashadacontinuingroleinthedevelopmentofsuperconductivity
throughthe1970’sand1980’sandhas，aSWeWillsee，beenboostedintothe1990’sby
thedevelopmentofIITS．
Finally，aSbackgroundtothenationalprqjectsofthe1980’sand1990’S，this
historyshowsthatcollaborationinresearcharlddevelopmentwasnotthenorm．Withthe
Principalactorssmal1innumber，theriskhigh，andthetechnologiestypicallyataprimitive
StateOfdevelopment，Wemighthaveexpectedtoseemorecollaborationoccurring．Some
Verticalrelationshipsdeveloped，butthenrms丘omthesamesectorspreftrredtoact
independentlywhentheycould，COmpetingmorethancooperating．
29RichardBrandt，OP・Cit・，P・2・
－34胃
LirLearMotor Car
InthissectionIwi11reviewthelinearmotorcarprograminmoredetailasit
PrOVidesanillustrationofboththeuseofcoll血rationandcompetitiontopromote
technologydevelopmentandtheinterplaywithpoliticswhichhasprovenessentialtothe
COntinuedsupportoftheprqject．Inthisprqject，teClm010gicalcooperationwillbeseento
belimited，grOuPed，andintemal1yrational一themeswhichwi11continuallyr翰Ppearinthe
lateranalysisofprqjectsin1980’sand1990’S．
AsintroducedinthehistoriCalreview，theresearchprogramintothistechnology
beganin1962astheShinkansen（bullettrain）prograJnWaSnearingcommercialoperation
andasengineersintheJRResearchhboratorybeganexploringalternativesfbrthenext
evolutioningroundtransportationtechnology．TheShinkansenwasdesignedtobeableto
travelatspeedsnear200klTVhrwhichatthetimewasconsideredaphenomenalleapover
the50－60kmAlrSPeedsofconventionaltrains．However，designingatraintotravelmuch
fhsterposedproblemsfbrdesigners．Higherspeedbringshigherlevelsof丘ictionand
WeartOthewheelsaswellashighlevelsofnoiseandvibration．Higherspeedsalsopose
PrOblemsintransftrringcurrenttothetraintopropelthevehicle．Thegeneralsenseof－the
engineersatthelaboratorywasaspeedofjustover300kIMlrWOuldbethemaximum
achievablewithaconventionaltraindesign．30，31
Amagrleticpropulsionsystemhadtheadvantagesofeliminatingtheserestrictions
OnSpeedasthevehiclewouldnoatabovetheguidewayandtheenergycouldbeprovided
fromthetrack．Thusin1962engineeringattheJRResearchLゐoratoryengineersbegan
benchlevelexperimentswithalinearmotorsystem．Thetechnologyitselfhadbeenknown
SirlCethediscoveryoftherotarymotorbuthadlargelyremainedunexploited．h1945a
linearpropulsionsystemhadbeenproposedfbrthelaunchingofrocketsandmissles．But
itwasnotuntil1966thattwoAmericansattheBrookhavenNationalIaboratory，J．R．Paul
andG．R．Danby，Publi血edanoverviewofamagneticallylevitatedtrainusing
SuPerCOnductirlgmagnetS．Thisaddedmomentumtoargumentsfbrthedevelopmentofthis
teclm0logyinJapan．
Throughthe1960’S，eXperimentsonthelinearmotordesignprogressedvery
Slowly．Thebenchscaledevicewasscaleduptoabackyardscaletestfhcility，butwork
WaSeXeCutedatarelativelylowlevelofpri0rity．
30TetsudoSogoGijutsuKenkyuujo，Bini胼．Tokyo：Seibunsha，1988．
31TheFrenchTGVconventionalhighspeedtrainsystemoperatesat270km伽ondedicated
trackbuthaspIansinplacetoincreasespeedsto350km爪rbytheendofthecentury．Theyalso
COnSideranoperatingspeedof400km伽tobepossible．（BarryJones，TheNewGenerationof
High－SpeedTrains：通蜃I逆生9上堕1上垣ヱ旦迫エ辿旦D蔓，October31，1990．）
胃35　－
ThencZLmetheWorld’sFhirinOsakainl968，withmillionsofnationaland
intemationalguestsmakingthevoyagedown丘omTokyotoviewtheintemational
exposition．Thelargevolumeofpassengersservicesnotonlyresultedinanincreased
awarenessgenerallyoftheconvemienceofthishighspeedservice，butovedoadedthe
Shinkansensystem，increasingawarenessthatcapacitywasnnite・By1969voiceswere
cal1ingagainfbranexpandedandfhsterfbrmofservicetoeventuallysucceedthe
Shinkansen．ThenextgoalwastravelbetweenTokyoandOSakainonehour，butthis
WOuldrequiremaximumspeedsofaround500・550km41r・
TheTechnicalAdvance
AttheJRResearchhboratory，YoshiyasuKyotani，headengineerinthesurvey
group，1edastudyteamwhichconcludedthattoprovidethisservicethelinearmotorcar
wouldbethebestoption，arldthattheperfbrmancedesiredcouldonlybeprovidedthTOugh
theuseofsuperCOnductivity．Conventionalmagnets，fbrexample，COuldonlyprovide
enoughneldstrengthtolinthecarlcmのovetheguideway．Inthislandoffrequent
earthquakes，thiswouldnotprovideenoughclearancefbrsafboperationshouldthetracks
Shift．Instead，aClearanceoflOcmwasdesired，andthiscouldonlybeachievedbyusing
superconductingmagnets・32，33
32Thedecisiontoemploysuperconductingmagnetsmayhavebeentheappropriateoneg－Ven
thescaleofthetransportationsystemandconcernsaboutearthquakes．landmovementand
SnOWalongthepathofthelinearmotorcar，butRalsoIeavesspacefortheprograrn’scompetitors
toexploitmarketsfortheiralternativesintheinterim．Japan’sothe用nearmotorcar，theHSST，has
beenunderdeveropmentsince1974byaconsortiumofcompaniesknownastheHSST
Corporation．ltwastrave”edtheInternationalExpositionCirc血overthepast5yearsglVlngrides
tothousandsofcuriousfairgoers．haddition，theGermanygovernmenthasbeensupportinga
COnSOrtiumoffirmsknownas”MagnetbahnTransrapid”forthedevelopmentofalinearmotorcar
knownastheTransrapid，alsosince1974．BoththeHSSTandtheTransrapidaremuchcl0SertO
COmmerCiaIapplicationthanJR’slinearmotorcar．Bothuseconventionalmagnets，WhichIimits
thelifttoIcm，incontrasttothelOcmofthelinearmotorcar，andconsequentlyreducesthe
marginforerrorandthespeed．Howeverforshortdistancesandstableterrainsthismaybemore
thanadequate．．
TheHSSThasachievedaspeedof307knVhrandtheTransrapidhasreportedaspeed
Of412km／hr．（ThetopspeedwithpassengersfortheHSSTisstiHllOkm／hr，Whereasthe412
knVhrTransrapidtestwaswithpassengers．）
lnJapan，HSSThasachievedagreementtoconstructalOkrntrackinAichiPrefecture
thatwouJdbedesignedforinnerc吋use．Anotherpotentialapplicationwouldbearoutethat
WOUld臨kNar托aandHanedalnternationatAirportsnearTokyowiththeCity’scenter．HSSThas
hadmoresuccess，however，OutSideofJapan．In1989itinitiatednegotiationswiththecityofLas
Vegas，Nevadafora7kmtrackconnectingthecQltOitsairport，andinJuJy1990．theHSST
Corporationannouncedthatithadobtainedac°ntraCttOteStthefeasibiLityofa21kmlinewhich
WOuldconnectMoscowwkhitsSheremetyevoJnternationalAirport．aJIowingthecommutetobe
madein15minutes．（”JapantoBuildaMagneticTrainforMoscow，－I地生し上垣越旦ユ地迎旦
July12，1990；NMosukuwaniNihonSeiRinia，’工墟旦助虹（yukan），July11，1990．）The
PrOlectisscheduledtostartin1991andtobereadyforserviceby1996atacostof90bi川onyen．
－36肩
In1970thedecisionwasmadetoproceedwithasuperCOnductingmagnetic
levitationtransportsystem・Whilemuchofthedeviceworkandsystemsintegrationwere
PerfbrmedbyengineersattheJRlaboratory，thecomponentswerecontractedtoprivate
developers．Forthemagneticguidancesystem，H血chi，MitsubishiElectricandToshiba
WereSelected．Itwasagreedthattheleadonthesuperconductingmagnetwouldaltemate
witheachsucceedinggenerationoftheteclm0logy，butthatallwouldcontribute．
1972markedthelOOthAndversaryoftheJapanNationalRailway，andas
mentionedearlier，tOhigh1ightthecelebrationtheorganizationwantedtobedbleto
demonstrateaprototypeofthisnewtechnology．Thenrstsuccessfu1prototype，theLSM－
200，WaSSuCCeSSfu11yoperatedinMarchofthatyearbutwasintendedmorefbrlaboratory
PrOOfof－conceptthanfbrpublicdisplay．LSMisanacronymfbrlinearsynchronousmotor
and200representsthe220meterlengthofthetesttrack．Apictureofthisprototypeis
ShowninFigure5．TheLSM－200wasa2tonvehicle，Whichwaslevitatedandpropelled
bythemagnetsmountedinthecarandrailway．Conventionalmagnetswerelinedupinthe
middleofthetrackandthesuperconductingmagnetswereplacedonthebottomofthecar．
Guidance，however，WaSPrOVidedbywheelsandnotthemagnetsthemselves．Thevehicle
reachedamaximumspeedof－40km血r．
Sevenmonthslater，inOctoberof’1972，amuChsleekerprototypewasunveiledto
thepubliconthelaboratorygrounds－intimetohelpmafktheAnniversary．Thisvehicle，
theML－100，WaSdesignedtoseatfburpassengersandranoveracentralI－beamguideway，
asisshowninFigure6．Thiswasa3．5tonvehiclethatcouldreachamaximumspeed
Of50km4lr．Theuseofalinearsynchronousmotordesignwas，however，COnSideredtoo
Prematurefbrthisimportantapublicexhibition，SOamOrePrOVenlinearinductionsystem
WaSuSedfbrpropulsion．Itwastheonlytimealinearinductionmotorwasused．In
addition，aSlideshoewasemployedfbrguidancetobetterassurethattheeventdidnot
WithinGermany，theTransrapidisscheduledtooperatealongthe150kmroutebetween
HannoverandHamburgbytheendofthe1990’S．0utsideofGermany，theorganization
announcedanagreementwiththeCityofPittsburginJanua一y1990toadoptTransrapid
technoIogytoconnectthe28kmbetweenRsinternationaIaJrPOrtandthecitycenter．Although
justin托sinitiaJfeasibiltiystudyphase，theprojectisestimatedtocometo餌00millionwhen
COmPleted．（”BeinoKosokuRiniaDounyuKeikaku，”蔓星口蜃j＿辿（yukan），January25，
1990．）
Thelong－termCOmPetitionwiththeseaIternativetechnologleSisthusabattlethatw＝
awaitJR’sHnearmotorcarastheytrytopromoteitinthenextcentury．
33TheuseofsuperconductivityaJsomeanstheuseofarepulsivemagneticratherthanan
attractivemagneticdesign．Attractivesystemsareunstabteunlessthecurrentinthemagnetcan
bevariedwide．yandrapidly，WhichispossibJewithnormalmagnetsbutnotwithsuperconductors．
Withoutthiscontrol，thegapbetweenthecarandrailcancontinuetonarrowunti＝tcIoses．
Superconductors，however，muStOPerateWithaconstantcurrent，andthuscannotbeoperated
tomaintainaconstantgapinanattractivedesign．（RichardThornton，WhytheU．S．Needsa
MagJevSystem，’丑迫独幽血垣旦Apri11991，PP．31－42．）
一37－
Figure5．　　TheLSM－200 Figure6．　ncML－100
（FromYoshihiroKyotani，”ChodendoJikiFujoResshanoGenjotoKorekara，’丁重堅L茎由盛運，Vol・10，
No．3，1975．pp．SL82）
Suf旋rfiomuntimelycollisionswiththeguideway．Althoughtechnical1ymuchdiffbrent
fbmtheeventualopeIationalLMCdesign，theexhibitiongavepublicofthepotentialfbr
SuPerCOnductingtransportation．
Foractualoperation，however，itwasdesiredthatguidanceofthevehiclealsobe
achievedinanon－COntaCtbshion．Thiswasachievedthrougha”nullnux”magneticcircuit
Whichhadtheadditionaladvantageofavoidinglossesfiomcurrentsthatcouldbeinduced
inthegroundcoilsfromthemotionofthevehicle－runflirlgreSistancelosses．Withthis
guidancesystem，nOmagneticneldisinducedandnolossoccurswhilethetrainisrunning
inthemiddleofthetrack．Whenthevehicledeviates丘omthecenter，aCurrentisinduced
inthecoilwhichcounteractstheshiftandacorrectingfbrceiscreatedwhichisproportional
tothedeviation．Thisguidancesystemwasunveiledinl975withthedemonstrationofthe
ML－100A．
UntilthistimeallofthetestirlghadbeenconductedattheTokyo，Kurlitachi
laboratory．However，furtherscalingupofthevehicleandhigherspeedtestirlgrequireda
longertesttrack，andin1977a7kmtesttrackwasinauguratedatMiyazakiinKyushu．
Thelengthof7knwascalculatedtobetheminimumneededfbrsaftoperationofavehicle
ー38－
uptoaspeedof500bl血r，Whichitwashoped，WOuldbetheeventualdesignspeedofa
COmmerCiallinearmotorcar．Thetracktooktheshapeofaninverted－T，withthe
SuperCOnductirlgCOilsusedfbrpropulsion，1evitation，andguidance，andthegroundcoils
usedfbrpropulsionandguidance・Forvehiclecontrol，aVariable－VOltage，Variable－
丘equencycyclotronconverterwasemployed，andaregenerativebrakingsystemwasused
tocaptureenergythatwouldotherwisebelostinbringingthetraintoahalt．Itwouldbeon
thistrackthatthetestofthevehicle’spotentialspeedweretobeconducted．
WithabasicdesignmodelledontheML－100A，theML－500wasconstructedto
Challengethe500km血rgoaltargetedfbrthelinearmotorcar．Through1ate－1977，1978
and1979，SpeedsweregraduallyincreasedbeyondlO0，200，300b融IrtOCOnfirmthe
controlandstabilityofthevehicle・34Finally，inDecember，theML－500achievedaspeed
Of517km41rWhichstillstandsasaworldrecordfbrtrainprototypes．TheJNRengineers
hadsuccessfu11ydemonstratedthefba5ibilityofrunningalinearmotorcarataspeedof
morethantwicethatoftheShinkansen．
Asaresultofthesuccessfulofthe517km几rdemonstration，SuPPOrtfbrthelinear
motorprQjectwashighinthepress，thepublicandamongpoliticians．Thiswasthepeak
Oftheprqiect’snationalsaliencetothisdate，andsince．
ThenextstepwastodemonstratethatthevehiclecouldoperateSafblywith
PaSSengerS．Atthistime，theshapeoftheguidewaywasrevisedfromtheinverted－Tshape
thathadbeenuseduntilthentoaU－Shape．Asaresult，thepassengersectionofthecar
WOuldnolongerhavetorideentirelyoverthetrackbutcouldtosomedegreebenestled
withinit，prOVidingfbramorestablerideandmakingtheoveralldesignmorecompact．
Themorestreamlinedthedesign，thelesstheaerodynamicdrag，WhichisasigninCant
eneTgylossatthehighspeedsatwhichthevehicletravels．Thecompactnessofthedesign
isalsoimportantinreducingtuTlnelingcostsfbrtheeventualrailway．Itisestimatedthat
60－80％ofthelinearmotorcar’sroutebetweenTokyoandOsakawillinvoIvetravel
throughtunneis・35
Between1980and1982theU－dlaPedtIaCkwasdevelopedalongwiththeMLU－
001（theadditionoftheUrefbrstotheU－Shapeddesign）．Inadditiontotestingthenew
designshape，theMLU－001wasalsodesignedtotestoperationwithmultiplecarsandto
testtheperfbrmanceofanewlydeveloped，COmPaCtandpowerfu1700kAmagnet．This
34TetsudoSogoGijutsuKenkyujo，′‘FujoshikiTetsudo：Tokyo：TetsudoSogoGijutsu
Kenkyujo，Circa1978．
35EstimatebasedonconversationswithrepresentativesinLandPJanningAgencyandthe
MinistryofTransportationand’’EigyoUntenMezashiKensetsuGO！，”工9也旦旦ヒ地軸迎（Yukan），
November28，1990．
ー39－
magnethad55％greatermagnetomotivefbrcethanitspredecessorusedintheML－500，and
allowedthesinglesuperconductingcoiltoprovideal1threefunctionsofpropulsion，
levitation，andguidance・Itwasinitial1yestimatedthatthisdesignwouldrequireone－fburth
theenergytoliftthevehicle・36TheMLU－001wasalsodesignedtocarryafbw
PaSSengerS，SOthatthecomfbrtoftheridecouldbemeasuredinaqualitativemanner，and
SOthatvisitingdignitariescouldexperiencefirsthandthisnewfbrmoftransportation．And
thislaterprovedimportzntinhelpingtopreservethefutureofthisprqject・
AsthedesignofthecarevoIvedcIoserarldcIosertothatofaneventualcommercial
designtheengineersattheJNRresearchlaboratoryfbundthemselvesincreasinglyina
dilemma．Althoughelatedatthesuccessofitsprqject，theR＆Dstafrbecameincreasingly
PreSSedaboutwhattodonext．Linearmotorcartechnologycould，brexample，deliver
evenhigherspeeds，butthetrackatMiyazakiwastooshorttogomuchbeyondthe500
km血rtafgef，a10ngertmckwouldbeneeded．FurtheTdeve】opmentofthevehiclewould
invoIveincrementaldesignandtestingimprovementswhichwouldadvanceittoward
COmmerCialization，butdemonstrationfbrcommercializationwouldincreasinglylirlkthe
PrqjecttothedesirebythegovernmenttObuildthelinearmotorcarsystem．Andthis
COmmitmentwasnotclear．
Throughthenextnveyears，developmentalworkcontinuedonthelinearmotorcar，
butatareducedpace・37Manyofthetestsconductedduringthistimeweredesignedto
improvetheoperationalcharacteristicsofthevehicleandincludedtestsoftheabilityto
COntrOlthemulti－CarVehicles，Oftheemergencybrakingsystemintheinstanceofpartialor
COmPletequenchingofthesuperconductingcoils，andoftheabilityofthevehicletotolerate
nonunifbrmities，StaggerSandberldsintheguideway－nOnunifbrmitieswhichwouldderail
COnVentionalrailcars．
In1987，thenextincrementalstepwascompletedwiththeunveilirlgOf’theMLU－
002．Thedesignofthisprototypewasintendedtobeclosetothatoftheanticipated
COmmerCialmodel．Thecarwas22minlength，abouttwiceaslongasanyoftheprevious
models，andhad44seatsinstalledfbrpassengers・38Thenumberofmagnetswerereduced
andplacedawayffomthepassengerareaatthefiontandbackendsofthecar．Although
thesemagnetswouldalsobemagneticallyshielded丘omtheinteriorofthevehicles，they
WerelocatedawayfromthepasserlgerareaStOfurtherreduceconcemsthatunexpected
36‘一8jiKoiruSayo，L．旦坦望艮塑型辿旦旦地頭辿凪January10，1991，P．5．
37Budgetsforovera?deveIopmentattheJRTechnicaI－nstituteandforsupportbythe
governmentbothshowasteadydecreasethroughthemid－1980’S，Withsupporttoaboutathird
OfthepeakvaIuesattheendofthe1970’S．
38Thecommercia－vehic．eisexpectedtohaveaseatingcapacityof96，butinthecaseofthe
MLU－802，abouthalfofthefloorareawasreservedfortestingequJPment．
ー40－
intrusionofamagneticneldmightadverselyafTbctpacemakers，OrOtherelectronic
PrOductsthatpasserlgerSmightbringaboard．Thebodyhasalsobeenstreamlinedto
furtherreduceaerodynamicdragandnoise，withwindowrecesseseliminatedandthe
exteriorparlelsweldedtothebodyratherthanriveted．
However，OVerthedecade，enthusiasmovertheprqiectgraduallywanedandas
timeworeonwithoutdecisiontoproceedwiththenextstepindevelopment，Cloudsof
PeSSimismbegantofbrmoverthefutureofthelinearmotorcar．
TheevolutioninlinearmotorcarprototypesuptothispointissummarizedinTable
4．
ThePoliticalDecisions
Wesawearlierthattheprqjectwasgivenitsinitialboostinsupportnot丘oma
technicalbreakthroughbutfiomthedesireofJNRtousetheprototypeasanattractionin
SuPPOrtingitslOOthArmiversarycelebration．Itssuccessledtothecommitmentof’funds
fbrtheMiyazakitestfhcility，Whichallowedengineerstosuccessfu11yshowthata
PrOtOtyPeCOuldachievea500kn∽lrSPeedgoal．ThenextmaJOrSteptOWard
COmmerCializationwouldrequiretheconstructionofalongertrackfbrfullvehicletesting．
Itwasestimatedthatatrackapproximately50kmWouldbeneeded．Thiswouldbe
expensive・Thiswouldrequireworkonthescaleofapublicworksprqject，andforsucha
Prqiectpoliticalsupportprovedcritical．
Thegeneralmoodofthegovemmentinthemid－1980’swasoneof－budgetcutting
notbudgetgrowth．Inaddition，inAprilof1987，thenationalrailwaywasprivatizedand
dividedinto6regionalprivateorganizations，BythistimetheJNRhadaccumulatedadebt
inexcessor37．ltri11ionyen（＄256billiorl），39andinthemidstofthecostcuttinganddebt
fbrgivingthatattendedprivatization，therewa5nOtahighlevelofenthusiasmfbr
embarkingonanewandverycostlyprQject．
Duringthisperiod，thereweremanywhopredictedthatthelinearmotorcarprqject
WOuldbeshelvedfbranirldenniteperiod．Fundsdevelopedatthelaboratoryandthose
COmmitteddirectlybythegovemmentwereattheirlowestlevels．I）uringthisperiod，
bureaucratsintheMinistryofTransportationwereapparentlylukewarmintheirsupportor
thelinearmotorcarhavingjustemerged丘omthechoreofdistributingthelong－termdebt
OfthenationalrailwayaspartoftheprivatiZation・
39unyusho，捷辿適地喧迫Tokyo：Unyusho，1987，P．147．Thed01larconversionwasmadeat
the1987lMFrateof144．6yen／doltar．
－41胃
Tdble4．CharacteristicsoftheLinearMotorCarPrototypeS40
Prototype System Length Mass CoilPower Speed Year
（m）（toIIS）andNumber　　　（knmr）
LSM200
MLlOO
MLlOOA
ML500
ML500R
MLUOOI
MLUOO2
MG温NFMNfMNfM刑
票豊豊uM
4．0　　2．0　　320kAx2
7．0　　3．5　　250kAx4
5．0　　3．5　160kAx4，
13．5　10．0　250kAx8，
12．6　12．7　250kAx8，
10．0　10．0　700kAx8
22．0　17．0　700kAx8
50　1972
60　1972
450kAx4　60　1975
450kAx8　517　1977
450kAx8　204　1979
405　1980－82
420＊　1987
LSM　LinearSynchronousMotor NFM Nul1－fluxmagneticguidance
IJM　LinearInductionMotor　　　＊　　Planned（attimeof’therefbrenced
MG MechanicalGuidance article）
Realizingthedangertotheprqjectandtothepublicwork5fundsthatwouldattend
theprqject，aVarietyofgroupsactivatedtokeepthenrealive．Academics，bureaucrats，
andstaffofthenewlyprivatizedRailwayTeclmicalResearchInstitute（RTRI）arguedthat
thetechnologyhadbynowbeenlargelyproven，thenation’Sfuturetransportationneeds
WOuldgreatlybenent丘omitscompletion，andthatitwaSaChancetodisplaytotheworld
theadvaIICedstateofJapan’stechnology．
Fortheprefbcturesinwhichthesitewouldbelocated，thiswouldmeanm可Or
Publicworksprqjects，bringinginnewmoney，Creatingjobs，andraisingthelevelof
Salienceoftheregionnationallyandintemational1y．
Regionalgroupswereesthblishedtoconductfhsibilitystudiesfbrlocatingthetest
Siteandinitial1y17proposalSwerereceived．By1989，threesitesemergedasthemost
likelycandidates：Miyazaki，Niigata，andSapporo・Onegrouparguedthattheeasiest
altemativewouldbetoextendtheexisting7kmtrackatMiyazaki．Thetestingfhcilitiesthat
hadbeenusedoverthepastdecadewerealreadysitedatMiyaLZakisoitwouldavoidthe
logisticproblemsthatwouldbeassociatedwithmoving．Someacademicsalsoarguedthat
bykeepingthefhcilityinMiyaLZaki，Whereitwouldprincipallydesignedasatestfhcility，
therewouldbefbwerpressurestoinitiatecommercialserviceprematurely．This，itwa5
argued，WaSaPOtentialproblemwiththeothertwooptions．
40日isashiTanaka，・・AppllCationofSuperconductivitytoTransportation：MagneticallyLevitated
Train，’’p・61，FirstlnternationaIConferenceonSuperconductivity，Nagoya，Japan，August28－31，
1988．
－42－
AsecondgrouppressedfbrcitingthetesttrackbetweentheChitoseAirport（also
knownasSapporoIntemationalAirport）inHokkaidoandthecityofSapporo．Thiswas
abouttheappropriatelengthfbrthetestingdesiredanditwouldallowtheliIlearmOtOrCar
tobequicklyconvertedintocommercialoperation．
Thethirdgrouparguedthatsincetheprincipalroutetowardwhichthelinearmotor
CarWOuldbetargetedisToky0－Osaka，thenthetesttrackshouldbeplacedinthis
COrridor，againtospeedtheeventualcommercialiZationofthetechnology．Asthe
ShinkansenwasalreadyservingthecoastalareaSbetweenTokyoandOsaka，itwasargued
thattherouteshouldbeplannedthfOughtheinlandregions，anargumerlt，Whichwillbe
explainedlater，mayhaveworkedwellindevelopingkeypoliticalsupportfbrthisprqject．
TheTokyo－Osakagroupcouldmakethegreatestargumentofpressingneed．me
Shinkansensystem，fbrexample，WOuldhavetourldergorepairsofitsinhstructure，its
bridgesandelevatedtrackbytheendofthecentury，fbrcingitscIosurefbrdaysatatime．
Furthermore，theShinkansenwasalreadynearcapacity・Initsopeningyearitaveraged
ll，000passengersperday，andby1990thedailypassengerloadhadincreasedto27，000．
The’’Hikari”（superexpress）betweenTokyoandOsakanowrunsat85％capacityon
average，butrisestollO－120％duringrushhourand160％onFddaynights・41
Whileallof－theseargumentsmayberationallypersua5iveandtrue，thedecisiorltO
SuPplythefundsnecessaryfbrthenextphasewaSaPOliticaldecision．Moreimportantly，
POliticianswererealizingthatthecancellationortheprqjectwouldmeanthelost
OPpOrtunityfbrbringingpublicworksfundstoone’sdistrict．TheMitsubishiResearch
InstitutehasestimatedthattheconstruCtionofthecentrallinearShinkansenbetweenTokyo
andOsakawouldrequireaninvestmentof3to4trillionyen，Withotherestimatesgoingas
highaSl0tdllionyen・42
Thefinancialgaintoone’sdistrictandtolocalindustryliesnotjustinthevalueor
theconstructionprqject，OrCOurSe，butalsoinspinofreffbctssuchasrisinglandvalues，
increasedtourism，andworkcreatedbytheinvestmentofthedistricttoattracttheprqject．
ItwasreportedthatsomeagriculturallandinYamanaShiwhichhadbeensellingfbr20，000
to30，000yenper3・3squaremetersbefbretheprqjectseemedlikely，hadskyrocketedin
Oneyeart0300，000to400，000yen・43Theaveragevalueoflandnearthestations
increasedanaverageof40－70％aftertheannouncement・44Inaddition，tOurismgenerated
fiomattractingguests丘omaroundthewoddtothetestsiteisexpectedtogenerateanother
41〝Jisoku500kironoYumeNoseChakuChaku，・皇蔓旦bI＿地lMarch21，1989，P．14．
42”HiyouFutanniKaramuOmowaku：一虫塗址旦址嘘辿皿August8，1989，P．4．
43‘′YuchiMikoshiTochiTouki，d金地i地ApriIg．1989．
44conversationwithrepresentativefromtheLandPlanningAgency・
ー43胃
onetri11ionyen．45Andfurther，tOattraCttheprqiect，Yamanashiprefbcturepromisedthe
commitmentof5billionyentotheimprovementofroadsandpublicfhcilities．
Itisnocoincidence，inlightofthis，thatonJulyl7，adaybefbreaclosely
COnteStedlowerhouseelectionbetweenanLDPandoppositionpartycandidatein
YamanaShi，theMinisterofTransport，Yamamura，Pre－emPtedtheomcialannouncementor
hisownMinistrybyannouncingthattheywouldberequestingfundstoinitiatethenext
phaseofthelinearmotorcarinthefbllowingyear・46
0nAngust3，1989，theMinistryofTransportationannOunCedthattheyhad
approvedaplanandbudgetfbrtheconstructioTlandoperationofthetestsitevaluedat350
billionyen．260billionyenisdirectedtothetrackconstructionwhichisexpectedtotake5
years，and90billiontotestinganddevelopmentwhichisscheduledfbr3years・47Itwas
notedthattheexpectedsitewouldbeinYamanashi，butthefbrmaldennitionofthesitewas
tofbllowfburdays】aterthroughtheAugust7annouTICementOftheadvisorycommittee，
Thetimingofthesetwoannouncementsmayseemstrangeatnrst，Withthebudget
announcementprecedingthefbrmalrecommendationoftheadvisorycommittee．Butthis
revealsacommonlypracticedteclmiquewhenapotentiallycontroversialdecisionisabout
tobemade．Onthedafeofthebudge［aflT10unCCme融，boththeTTarl5POrtMinisterandthe
Ministry’sheadofthelinearmotorcarprqjectwereawayfromTokyo．Ifstrong，
unexpectedoppositionwasvoicedtothechoiceofYamanaShi，theyandtheadvisory
COmmitteehadroomtoclaimthatthebudgetannouncementwaSanunauthorizedactbya
lowerbureaucrat．They wouldhavetimetoretractthedecisionandapologizefbrthe
misunderstanding．Sinceunanticipatedobjectionsdidnotarise，however，thedecisionof
theadvisorycommitteecameasplanned：thecoursewouldtrave143kilometersbetween
AkiyamaandSakaigawavillagesinYamanashiprefbcture．
Whoseargumentwasmostinnuentialisunclear，but twopoliticianshavebeen
Visibleinclaimingcredit，ShintaroIshiharaandShinKanemaru．Ishihara，theMinisterof
Transportationinl987，hasarguedthatthecontinuationof－thelinearmotorcarprqject
resultedlargelyfromhispersonalguidancetotheministry．AsMinister，Ishiharavisitedthe
MiyazakitestfhcilityandarodeontheMLU－001．HewasenamoredbythetechI1010gy
andmoreimportantlybytheclaimthatJapan’slinearmotorcartechnologywascurrently
leadingtheworld，aleadthatwoulddisappearshouldfundingfbrtheprqjectceaLSe．
45〝Riniade，Kasegu，，Waka，Yamanashi，㌦蜃運虹旦地頭型AOctober31，1989，P．3．
46’’HiyouFutanniKaramuOmowaku：p．4．
47〟RiniaJikkenYamagatade：怨如剋幽August4，1989，P．3．0fthisfigure．the
govemmentwi”provide30bHionyen．JRTokaiwi”provide150bimonyen，andtheremainderwH
beprovidedbytheregionalraiJways．（ConversationwithLandPJanningAgency officialsin
Decemberof1990reveaJsthatthegovernmentburdenhasincreasedto49b川ionyen．）
－44肩
Ishihamthenbecameanadvocatefbrthetechnology，withthehopethatitwouldbring
PreStigetothecountryandcouldbetransfbrredtoothernationscommerciallyandthrough
intemationalcontribution・BothheandbureaucratsinterviewedintheMinistryof
TransportationclaimthathadhenotgiventheMinistryofTrmsportationthesignaltopush
fbrthisprqject，itwouldhavedied．48
Moreimportant，however，aPPearStObethepushprovidedbyShinKanemaru．
ShinKanemanl，aVerySeniormemberofthepowerfulTakeshitafhctionintheLDP，
representsaconstituencyinYamanashi．AndithappenSthattheproposedtestsiteruns
throughhisdistrict，Withaniceviewofthetestsite丘omthegolfcourseabove，Of－which
KanemaruistheChairmarl．KanemanlhaSbeenquotedassayirlgthatinretumfbrhis
SuPPOrtOrtheprqjecthereceivedaverbalpromiseffomboththePrimeMinisterandthe
MinistryofTransportationthatthenexttestfhcilitywouldbesitedinhisdistrict．49As
mentionedearlier，afteritwasclearthatYamanashiwouldbethesite，1andvaluesalongthe
COurSeincreaseddramatical1y．
lnterestingly，fbrJRtheultimatebenentstonetincomearelessclear．Simple
CalculationsbytheMitsubishiResearchInstituteshowthatalthough7tri11ionyeninincome
Canbeanticipatedfiomtheoperationofthelinearmotorcar，thisincomemaybemorethan
Ofhetbytheinterestadjusted4．3tri11ionyenestimatedfbrconstructionandlossesin
ridershiptotheexistlngShinkansen．Mitsubishiestimatesthatanetlossofl．ltrillionyen
willoccurwhenthetwosystemsareconsideredtogether・50Nonetheless，thepolitical
decisionhasbeenmadetoproceed，andbecausethelinearmotorcarhasbecomemorean
issueorpoliticalsupportandintenlationalstandingthaneconomics，theabovefbrecasthas
notslowedprogress．
PatternSOfInnovation
Uptonow，Ihavebeendescribingthisactivityasthehistoricevolutionofasingle
entity，theoverallprQject．Butitisonetowhichmanynrmshavecontributed．Inthis
SeCtiorlIwillexaminepatternsofinnovationwhichgiveinsightintohowtheprlnCipal
nrmsareorganizedandhowcollaborationoccurs．HowwastheR＆Dmanaged？What
roledidcollaborationplayindevelopment？Isthereapatterninthecollaborations？Wecan
48Thisc，aimisgeneraflyconfirmedbyanumberofindependentsourcesintheMinistryof
Transpo代誠on．
49MakikoOgihara，・BossusesoId－timepo．iticsinmag－evtussTe：JapanEconomicJournaI，March
25，1989，P．40．
50HChuoRiniaEkusupuresuJisoku500KironoYumeNoseChakuChaku，〃AsahiShimbun，
March21，1989，P．4．
ー45－
getsomeanswertothesequestionsbylookingattheoverallpattemofpatentsubmissions
byyear．
Firstabriefintroductiontowhatourpatentswi11beanalyzing．Thelinearmotorcar
SyStemeSSential1yconsistsofacar，aguideway，aPrOpulsionmechanism，andthecontroI
SyStem．Throughtheseriesofprototypedesigns，thedesignofthelinearmotortestvehicle
CameCloserandclosertoapproximatingthecommercialprototype，withimprovementsin
aerodynamicdesign，Weight，andequipmenthousing．Thesuperconductingmagnetsand
itsassociatedcoolingsystemaremountedonthecars．
Therailstructureprovidestheguidewayfbrthevehicleandhousestheconventional
magnetswhicharemanipulatedfbrcontrolandlevitation．Asdescribedeadier，throughthe
ML－500，thecaroperatedbystraddlingasingleI－b組ITIShapedguideway・However，with
thisarrangement，thecross－SeCtionalareaofthecar－railsystemwouldbeontheorderof
25％greaterthanonedesignedintoaU－Shapedtrack．SobeginningwiththeMLU－001，a
U－Shapedtrackdesignwasselected．
PropulsionfbrthistrainisprovidedbyalinearsynchroIIOuSmOtOr，Whichcanbe
Visualizedasanunfbldedrotarysynchronousmotor．Again，thesuperconductingmagnets
areplacedinthevehicle，andconventionalmagnets，aSSembledasthree－phasepropulsion
COils，arePlacedonthetrack．Acurrentispassedthroughthesepropulsioncoilswhich
CreateSamagneticfield，andthefbrcethatactsbetweenthepropulsionaIldsuperconductirlg
COilspropelsthevehicle．AschematicisshowninFigure7．
Thespeedofthevehicleiscontrolledbyvaryingthefiequency（phase）ofthethree－
Phasepropulsioncoils．Thisisaccomplishedthroughavariablefi・equenCyCOntrOlloop
Whichismanipulatedbyacyclotronconverter．ffoweverathighcurrentsandvoltages，
teclm010giestoallowthiscontrolbecomeincrea51ngiyunavailable．Thelinearmotorcaris
expectedtorequirethreetimestheelectricsupplyoftheShinkansenwhichmeansthatthe
Oldercontroltechnologiesarenotdirectlytransfbrable．AttheMiyazakitesttrackanl8
MVAcycloconverterwasconstIuCted，butfbrthecommercialvehicle，a40MVAsystemis
desired，anditsdevelopmentremainsasachallengefbrtheprQject’sengineers．
PCfe／lJAJld如J∫
Toexaminethecontributionofcoopemtivedevelopmenttothisprqject，allofthe
PatentaPPlicationsthathavebeensubmittedbytheRailwayTechnicalResearchInstitute，
alorleOrjointlywithotherorganizations，willbeanalyzed．These432applicationswere
dividedamongseventechnicalcategories：l）superconductingtechnologies，2）
－46胃
Figure7．　SchematicoftheLinearPropulsionSystem
（FromabrochureoftheRailwayTechnicalResearchInstitute．）
COnVentionalmagnets，3）thecoolingsystem，4）theelectricalandcontroIsystem，5）the
Car，6）therailandguideway，and7）miscelianeoustestequipment．
Figure8showsthepeaksandtroughsinthelevelofpatentapplicationsrelatedto
thelinearmotorcarsince1971．Theoverallpattemofapplicationsrenectsthestagesofthe
linearmotorcar’sdevelopment．Afterthedecisionwasmadetodevelopahighspeed
PrOtOtypein1970，patentaPplicationsdisplayedarapidrise，peakingbetween1972and
1975．Thisactivitysubsidedsomewhatin1976and1977whileengineerswaitedfbrthe
COmPletionoftheMiyukitestfhcility．Activitypeakedtwicesoonafter，OnCein1978as
engineerspreparedfbrthetestingoftheMIJ－500andML－500R，andagaininl980asthe
MLU－001anditsmodinedguidewayweredeveloped．Throughthel980’swecanalso
Seeagradualdecreaseinpatentapplicationsasnom可OrneWPrQjectswereinitiated．
Thengurealsoshowsthatthroughouttheprogramthebulkofthepatent
applicationshaveaddressedinnovationsinthecontrolandelectronicsystem，witha
Particulardominancebetween1971and1976，Overal1，thiscategoryaccountsfbrabout
47％oftheapplicationswiththoseaddressingthethevehiclenextat19％andthose
addressingthegTLidewayatl3％．Patentsdirectlyaddressingsuperconductingmagnets
accountedfbrjustover6％ofthetotal．
Mostofthepatentsapplicationsweresubmittedbynrmsffomtwoindustrial
SeCtOrS，CableandWireandHeavyElectricalMachinery．Firms丘ombothsectorsexhibit
aslgnificantcontributiontopatentsaddressingtheelectricalandcontroIsystem，Withthe
CableandWiresectortheprincipalcorltributorindeveloprnentsfbrtheguideway．Firms
intheHeavyElectricsectorholdvirtuallyallofthepatentsaddressingthecoolingsystem
andallpatentsapplyingtothesuperconductingmagnets．
胃47－
PalcJltApplicationsbyCntcgoryorInnovalion
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yearsoftheprqject，alotofbasicinhstructuralworkneededtobecompletedtogetthe
testingcomplexintooperation・Duringthisperiodthemagneticguidewayandthebasic
COntrOIsystemhadtobedeveloped，andfbrthistheCd31eandWirenrmsprovidedthe
greatestcontribution．Afterthebasicsystemwasestablished，furtherimprovements
invoIveddevelopmentofimprovedversionsofequipmentusingthesefhcilities，SuChasthe
SuCCeSSiveversionsofthevehicles，andthiswastheresponsibilityofnrms丘omtheheavy
electricalequipmentsector．ThisisseeninFigure9．
gvfde柁Ce〆Co呼erのon
Isthereevidenceofsignificantcooperationbetweenthesenrmsinverticalor
horizontalrelationships？Dividingthepatentapplicationsbythenumberofdiffbrerlt
Organizationalassignees，FigurelOshowsthatapplicationsbetweenRTRlandasingle
COOPeratOrWaSthemostcommonmodeovertheprQjectShistory．However，intheearlier
years，betweenl973and1976，therelativecontributionofpatentsfiomtwoormore
a5Signeeswasasignincantportionof’thetotal．
Whattypeofcooperationwasoccurring？Therearethreepointswhichemerge
丘omtheanalysisofcooperation・First，allolthethree－nrmCOOperativepatentapplications
aresubmittedbythesamethreenmswhichareal1丘omthesameindustrialsector－they
arenormallycommercialcompetitors．Second，allofthetwo－nrmCOOPerativepatent
applicationsinvolvingnrmsindiffbrentsectorsoccurwiththekeiretsuofthelargefirm，
andthird，teChr1010gyleadershipbythemainequipmentnrmsonthedevelopmentorthe
SuperCOnductingmagnetswasalternatedandwasnottakenjointly．
AmongtheapplicationsinvoIvingthreeassignees，al1weresubmittedbythesame
SetOfthreeCableandWirenrms：Furukawa，HitachiCable，andSumitomoElectriC．The
reasonsfbrthispattemofcooperationbetweenpotentialcompetitorsappearstostemfbrm
theneedsofthetechnology，thelevelofinexperienceofeachofthenrms，andthethreatof
exclusionfiomtheprq）eCtShouldtheyengageincompetitivebehaviordetrimentaltothe
goalsoftheprQject・Thesethreenrmsprimarilycooperatedonthedevelopmentofhigh
POWerSWitchingneededtocontrolthevehicle．Thiswasasinglecomponentorthe
infrastructureofthesystem．Toaccomplishthis，engineers丘omeachofthenrmswere
dispatchedtothesiteandtotheTokyolaboratorytoassistinthesystem，sdevelopment，
andtheengineersworkedinacommonteamfbrthetechnicaldevelopment．Asadiscreet
COmPOnentintendedprincipallyfbrthetestcontroIsystem，incentivestoappropriate
－49－
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advancesfbrfuturecommercialdevelopmenthadlessmeaningasthisprqjectwasthemain
market．
Secondly，inthebeginning，allnrmswereequal1yinexperiencedinthisteclm010gy
andthusnonrmwasinapositiontoclaimadominantrole・Thenrmscouldtherefbregain
moreequally丘omtheirexperienceintheprqjectandthedisincentivesassociatedwitha
strongnrmgivingupmorethanaweakernmlWerenOtimportant・Thirdly，themarketfbr
theirwofkwouldalsobe，fbrthelong－term，thisoneprqject．Competitivemaneuveringfbr
theirindividualinterestwhichwouldnegativelyinnuencetheoperationoftheprogram，
wouldmorelikelyresultinexclusionfiomratherthanexclusiveoccupationwithinthe
prQject．OtherCableandWirenrmswerenotallowedtoparticipate，butcouldshouldone
oftheselectedthreefhiltoperfbrm．Theprivilegeof－participationalsomeantthepromise
Ofcooperation．
Examiningthepatentapplicationsproducedcooperativelybythesethreefirms
PrOVidesevidencethatthedegreeofcoopeIationwasdeterminedbythecompaniesbased
OnteChnologyneedratherthanon”cooperativebehavior’’oronorderstocooperatebythe
sponsoringorganization・UsingtherationalchoicemodelofKodamaandKobayashi，51
WeSeeaPattemOfcooperationwhichrenectsthepredictedbehaviorofcompetitivefirms
COOPeratingonatechnologyprQject．Usingaprobabilitydensityfunctionbasedonarl
assurnptionofindependentdecisionstocooperatebyeachofthenrms，theirmodelwould
Predictthegreatestnumberof－cooperativecasestooccurwithsinglenrmsandRTRI，
fbllowedinnumberbyallthreenrms，withtwonrmscooperatingbeirlgtheleastiikely
CaSe．Figurellshowsthatthisisthepatternobservedhere，makingitpossibletoargue
thatthedecisiontocooperatewasatechnologicailydeterminedoneratherthanacoerced
One．52Insulationwasprovided丘omotheroutside，Withdiscretiontocooperateasneeded
PrOVidedinside．
ThisisconnrmedbyengineersatRTRIwhopointtothecommonalityoftheirtaSks
andthecollectivebutflexiblemanagementofnrmparticipation．AsthebasicinhstnlCture
requlnngCOOPerationwasdeveloped，COOperationbetweenthesenrmscanbeseento
decrease，SOthatthroughthel980’stherewerenosuchcasesrecorded．
51FumioKodama，・′RivaJs・ParticipatinginCo?ectiveResearch：ltsEconomicandTechn0log－Cal
Rationale：’presentedatthelnternationalConferenceonScienceandTechn0logy，WhatShould
beDone？WhatCanbeDone？February2－4，1990，Shimoda，Japan．
52TheintuitivesolutionwouIdbethatasthenumberoffirmsincreasedthenumberofjointed
developedpatentswoulddecrease，aCOnStantIydeclinlngCurVe，buttheKodama－Kobayashi
Modelshowsthatrationalselectiongivesacounterintuitiveresult．Thep01iticalsolutionwouldbe
fora?firmstosharethepatentstomaximizediffusion，aJargelybimodalcurve，butthisisalsonot
Whatisseen．
ー52　－
NumkrorC。OFつIL叩FbmバVL血相止はCb［tudW、ftktcrSUOn仙ngP］加［ApplChtm
Figurell．　CollabomtionsAmongCompetitors
坤7Jfg′lCe（ガ約肺J∫〃
CooperationisalsoseentooccurbetweentwonrmsandRTRIoutsideoftheabove
triangleofCableandWirenrms．Dothesecasesseemtorepresenta丘eerfbrmof
participation？Alloftheseothertwonmcollaborationsalsooccurintheearlyyearsofthe
prqjectandinvoIvenrmscooperatingacrossdiffbrentindustrialsectors，implyinga
COmPlemeIltaryOf－skills．However，Figure12showsthatthesetwo－nrmCOllaborationsdo
fbllowadistinctpattemwhichwouldcontradictargumentsthatcollaborationwasoccurring
丘eely．
ThethreeCableandWiremanufhcturersareagaincentralastheyrepresentthree
diffbrentkeif・etSIL．Thetwo－nrmCOllaborationsalloccurwithinoneofthesekeiretsu
groupings．Therearenoexamplesornrmscollaboratingacrossthesegroupingsexceptfor
theCableandWirenrms．
Thuscooperationbetweentwoorrnorefirmsisseentobeconcentratedintheearly
PhaseofthisprQject，withcollaborationbetweennrmsinthesamesectoradominant
COOPerativemodefbrthree－nrmaCtivities．Acrosssectors，nrmSareSeerltOreaChfbr
COmPlementaryassetsthroughtwo－nrmCOOPeration，butalwaystumtotheirkeif・etSu
amliatesratherthantoavariedassortmentofsuppliers．
－53－
Figure12　Inter－firmColhborationsinPatentApplicationsRelatedtotheLinear
MotorCarProgram
C00PerativePatentsStemmmgfromtheLinearMotorCarProject
ー54－
〃αnαgエバgCor坤の肺ninかeve叩mg兢eS岬erCO乃血C血g〃dg乃ど砧
Finally，Whataboutthedevelopmentofthesuperconductingmagnetitself？As
mentionedearlier，PatentaPPlicationsthatapplytothesuperCOnductingmagnetsamountto
Only6％ofallofthepatentsintheRTRIdataset・Doesthedatatellusanythinginteresting
aboutthemanagementofcollaboration？
Althoughthedataaresparse，itdoesshowthatthreenrmswereinvoIvedinthe
developmentofthesuperCOnductorsandthatHitachiandToshibaweremoreactivein
Submittingapplicationsearlyintheprogrzm，WithMitsubishiElectriCthemostactivelater
intheprogram・Interestingly，althoughtherewerethreecablemanufhcturerscapableof
SuPPlyingthesuperconductingwireandmorethanthreedevicemanufhcturerscapableor
PrOducingthemagnets，therewerenocooperativepatentssubmitted，indicatingthatthe
basicmanufhcturingtechnologywasbasedonlargelyestablishedtechnology・
ConversationswithengineersatRTRIrevealthatthishintofinfbmlationis
revealingoftheirmanagemerltStrategyindevelopingthistechnology．Theyselectedthe
threemostcapableprivatesectorsuperconductingmagnetmanufhcturersbutthenrmsdid
notworkinacommonfhcilityasl）therewasnotateclm010gicalneedtodoso，and2）
theypreftrrednottoworktogether．ThusRTRIhadthefirmsalternativelytaketheleadin
beingthemaindeveloperofeachofthesuperconductingprototypes．FortheLSM－200，
Toshibawastheprincipaldeveloper．FortheMLlOOHitachiwaSthemaindeveloper．
TheleadthenchangedtoMitSubishifbrtheML－500，tOToshibafbrtheMLU－001andto
allthreenrmsfbrtheMLU－002．TheplanonthepartofRTRIwastohaveseveralnrms
Capableofsupplyingthistechnologysothatl）theywouldpresseachotherinincreasing
thelevelofthetechnology，2）theywouldnotbeoverlydependentonasinglesource，and
3）theywouldgainfromtheworkoftheothersthroughanalternationofthetechnicallead，
andthusatransfbrofinfbrmation，inacontinuouslydevelopingtechnology．By
employingseveralcompetingnrmsworkonthesameteclm0logyarea，nrmSCanSPeed
developmentthrougharatchetingupef丘ct．Byaltematingthetechnological1ead，
infbrmationisdiffused丘omonenrmtothenext，PrOvidingfbrcollectiveleaminginan
insulatedstructure．Bycontractingwithseveralnrms，alsoRTRIbetterassuredthatthere
WOuldbeadiffusionofthetechnologytoeachnrm，ssubcontractorsandsuppliersandthus
awidertechnologybaseuporlWhichitcouldrely．
WhentheleadshiftedtoMitsubishi，Hitachidecidedthatthemarketfbrthis
OPpOrtunitywasgoingtobetoosmallfbrtoolonganddecidedtoswitchitsfbcustoother
applications，Primarilyfusiontestmagnets，droppingout，fbrthetimebeing丘omthe
SuPerCOnductingmagnetportionoftheprqject・Thisisevidencedinthepatentapplications．
－55胃
Table5showsthatsteadyprogresswasmadetomakethemagnetsmorepowernll
andmorecompact．ThewallmagnetsfbrtheMLU－001andOO2arestrongenoughto
provideal1threefhnctionsoflevitation，PrOPulsion，andguidance，andthenumberofmagnetshavebeengradual1yreducedsothattheycanbepositionedattheendsofthecars，
awayffomthepassengers．However，nOOrmagnetShavestillbeenusedinthecarsandon
theguidewayfbraddedstability．Forthenextprototype，thesenoormagnetswillbe
eliminated，leavlngOnlythewal1magnetstoprovidefbroperation・Thisisexpectedto
reducetheelectricityconsumptionbylO％・53Forthistask，a11threemanufhcturershave
beenactivatedandrequestedtoconductdevelopmentalworkindependently・Thusfbr
developmentinthis爪nalphase，RTRIishopingtoexploitcompetitiveincentivesamong
PrqjectparticipantstoachievehigherprogramperfbmlanCe．
凡鯛1の”lgC／ldJJe′1gど∫
Befbretheprqiectiscompleted，however，muChremainstobetestedirlthe
demonstrationphaseandnewopportunitiesfbrimprovedperfbrmanceloomtobe
explored．Thereliabilityorthemagnets，fbrexample，ha5tObeconnrmedinanactual
Table5．　　FeaturesofSupercorlductingMagnetsUsedirltheLinearMotorCar
Prototypes54
LSM＊　ML－100＊　　ML－500　　MLU－001　MLU－002
（1972）（1972）　（1977）　（1980）　（1987）
WeightofWire
MagnetomotiveForce
NumberofCoilTurns
ElectriccurrentDensity（jVmm2）
StoredEner幻7
MaximumMagneticField
CopperRatio
NumberofCoreWires
Maglevforce／OneMagnet
Maglevforce／
MagnetWeight
73kg　66kg　　116kg lOOkg　　77kg
320kA　250kA　　　450kA　　　700kA　　　700kA
230　　　355　　　　　560　　　　1000　　　　1167
112　　121　　　　　89　　　　　183　　　　　210
77U　48U　　　　196U　　　522kJ　　　　550kJ
2．1　　1．9　　　　　　2．9T　　　　4．7T　　　　5．1T
6．7：0　　8．5：0　　　　7：0　　　　　2：0　　　　　1：0
230　　　355　　　　　253　　　　　2257　　　　2689
400kg　950kg　　2，500kg　　2，500kg　　4，250kg
0．32　　0．95　　　　1．8　　　　　3．9　　　　　4．5
＊　　　Recallthatthesearemuchsmallervehiclesthanthelaterprototypes．
53．，SokuhekiFujoushikiRiniaSaiyo，ShouhiDenryoku10％Gen，〝址地吐塾担幽通塾狙
August8，1990，P．1．
54M・YamaJ．andH・Nakashima，”SuperconductingMagnetforMagneticaHyLevitatedVehicJe，
FirstInternationalSymposiumonSuperconductivity，Nagoya，Japan，August28－31，1988，PP・
71－76；and”FuloshikiTetsudonoChodendoKyokuteionGijutsu∴担血豆塾迫也，VoL16，No．5，
1981，P．274．
－56肩
OPeratingenvironment・Inoperation，thevibrationofthetraintendstoheatthemagnets，
WhichcouldcaseaquenchingofthesuperCOnductingphenomenaandhenceasuddenloss
Ofpower．Thiswouldresultinasuddenlossofpowerthatwouldcausethetraintoveer
intothewallofthetrack，aShappenedduringatestrunattheendofMayl990．55
Theperfbrmanceofthevehicleenteringandtravellingthroughtunnelswillalsobe
arlimportanttestgiventhehighspeedsofthetrainandestimatesthat60－80％ofitspath
betweenTokyoandOsakawillbethroughtunnels．Andpefhapsmostimportantly，
travellerswillhavetofbelcomfbrtablethatthestrongmagneticneldsgeneratedbythe
magnetswi11notbeadangertotheirhealth．
Thediscoveryofhightemperaturesuperconductivityalsopresentsnew
OPpOrtunitiesastheuseofHTSmagnetsinthelinearmotorcarwouldintheoryreduce
energyconsumptionthroughalO－15％reductioninvehicleweightanda5－10％reduction
inonboardvehicleneeds・56However，thispossibilityhashadlittleeffbctontheprogram
designtodate．ItisgenerallyftltthattheavailabilityofhighneldHTSmagnetsisstilla
largenumberoryearsintheomng，SOtheprogramisfbcussingoncontinueddevelopment
OfLTSmagnetdesigns．
WhereHTSmaterialsmayplayaroleisinmagneticshielding．Thistechnology，it
isbelieved，wi11beavailablebythemid－1990’S，anditsusewouldallowsomereductionin
refhgerationcostsandweight．
＄呵叩こ1上土
InlargepublictechnologyprQjects，POliticswillcometoplayanimportantrolein
Japanasinanyothercountry．Inthecaseofthelinearmotorcar，theincentivesand
decisionsofpoliticiansappeartohavebeeninstrumentalinkeepingtheprogramin
existenceandindeterminingthepaceofdevelopment．LikeanypublicworksprQject，it
meansincreasedemploymentandincreasedlandvalue．Butthereachofpolitical
interventionisnotdeep・Asatechnologyprqject，RTRIanditscontractingnrmswere
allowedtofbcusprimari1yoneachprototypegoal，Organizingthenrmstoexploit
COmPetitiveandcooperativeincentivesindevelopment．
Inmanagingthedevelopmentofthelinearmotorcar，aSalient丘aturewhichis
Observedthroughtheprogramistheuseofmultiplecontractorsfbrthemaintechnology
55’’RiniaJikkenshagaJiko，′′Ygn3igLLabiQ3塾軋（yukan），August28，1990，P．18；WithmoredetaHs
in’’MasatsunetsudeJiryokuUshinau：！型建立旦吐出塾凪September3，1990．
56DonaldRoteandLarryJohnson，・・Potentia＝∋enefitsofSuperconductivityTransportationin
theUnitedStates，‘‘FirstInternationalConferenceinHighTemperatureSuperconductivity，
August28－30，1988，Nagoya，Japan，PP．66－70（67）．
胃57－
developmenttasks・Ataminimum，multiplesourcesactasafbrmofinsurance，incaseone
ofthenmlSCOuldnotperfbmasexpected，Orincaseoneofthenrmsbecomes
disinterestedinsomepartorthedevelopmentactivity・Thelatter，fbrexample，WaSSeentO
bethecasewithHitachi，aSitdroppedoutofthesuperCOnductormagnetdevelopmentafter
theML－100prototype．Multiplesourcingwasalsoawayofinstillingcompetitionin
development，PrOVidingadisincentivetoshoddyorletha塔icwork，Zmdameansof
leveraglngthecapabilitiesofseveralnrmsbydi乱singinfbrmationthroughjointtasksor
altematingprqjectleadership．
Howevertheuseofmultiplenrmsdoesnotalwaysmeanthattheprogramwas
expectingorfbrcingcooperation．Cooperationorcompetitionareusedinaccordancewith
theappealofthetechnicalandcompetitiveirlCentives andrenectedexistingindustrial
relationships．Cooperationevidencedinjointpatentapplicationsoccurredwherethe
teclm010gytargetedwasoneof－commonin丘astructureandthelevelofexperienceequal
andlowenoughthateachnrmhadlittletoloseandcontinuedparticipationtogainfromthe
COllaboration．Thiswasseeninjointpatentapplicationsbythethreeparticipatingcableand
WiremanufhcturersinthedevelopmentofpowercontroIsearlyintheprQject．Afterthis，
theneedwasfilled，thecooperationdissoIvedanddidnotreemergefbrtherestofthe
prOgmm．
CooperationbetweennrmsindifTirentsectorswaSalsoseeninthepatent
applicatiorldata，butallca5eSOCCurredbetweennmlSinthesametraditioIlaliIldustrial
grouplng，Orkeiretsu．Hereeachofthecableandwiremanufhctureswereseentobe
COOPeratinginitsownsetofsubcontractors．A丘eeassociationoftwo－Way，inter－SeCtOr
COOPerationwasnotobserved．
Whenthedevelopmentof－thesuperconductingmagnetsareexamined，however，We
Seetha＝hethreem可OrSyStemSnrmSWeremanagedfbrcompetitionratherthan
COOperation．Eachnrmwascapableonitsownofproducingtheneededsuperconducting
magnets，andsoeachnrmwasallowedtodoso，altematively．Theprogressiveadvanceof
theprototypesrequiredcontinuedadvancesof’thesemagnetsasdescribedearlier，andthis
keptthefirmsinsearchofimprovementS．
ThusiIlthislinearmotorcarprogmm，COOPerationwasseentobel垣1iId，g嘘
and出生由地1．ItislimitedtoaselectedsetofCableandWiremanufhcturersand
HeavyElectricalEquipmentnrms，theprimecontractors．Itisgroupedamongthekeif・etSIl
Ofthemqjorparticipantstotakeadvantageorestablishednormsofcross－SeCtOrCOOPeration
toenharlCethecorltributionofeachprimecontractor．Arlditisinternaliyrationalinthe
SenSethatprqjectselectionfbrcooperationwithinthesegroupednrmsappearsbased
－58一
Primari1yontechnicalmotivationswithintheconstraintstoappropriationpresentbecause
theclientisnationalasingular，nOtCOmmerCialandmultiple．
Finally，eVenthough丘omthebeginningthisprqjectwasandstillishai1edasa
Prqiectthatcentersaroundanadvancedtechnology，SuPerCOnductivity，nOneW
developmentsinsuperconductingmagnetswereneededfbrthenrsttwoprototypes・The
PrQjectexploitedexistiIlgteClm0logy．Itwasnotunti11978andtheML－500thatthenrst
patentapplicationsinsuperconductivityweresubmitted，andaswehaveseenh・Omthedata
Ofimprovedmagnetperfbrmance，theseadvanceshavebeenincrementalonesinimproving
thepowertoweightratioofthedevices．
IVL＿＿＿＿二陛fIA旦＿」ⅣAS THEINDUSTRY STATUS AT THE TIME OF HTS
Asdescribedintheearliersection，therewaSahistoryofteclm010gydevelopment
activitieswhichcontributedtothecreationandsustainabilityofaLTSindustryandwhich
PrOVidedfbranHTSresearchcapabilityatthetirneofitsdiscovery．Thepurposeofthis
SeCtionistoreviewthestatusoftheindustryatthetimeofthediscovery，tOPrOVidesome
SenSeOfthecapabilitiesthatcouldbedrawnupon，Oftheindustrialstructureand
relationshipswhichexisted，Zmdtoshedlightontheopportunitiesorneedsfbrgovemment
POlicyandcooperativeR＆D．
The LTS Markets
Asdescribedinthediscussionofthehistoryofthistechnology，duringtheperiod
betweenl970andthemid－1980’smuchofthemarketwasdirectedtowardprovidingwires
toaccelerators，fusionandmagneticneldexperimentaldevices．Magnetsforthelinear
motorcarexperimentsanduniversitylaboratorieswerealsobeingdelivered，butthemarket
Sizewasfhrmoreminor・Duringthisperiod，thesuperconductingwiremarketinJapan
avefagedonehundredmi11ionyen（＄1－2million）peryear．
Inthemid－1980’S，JapanesemakersenteredthecommercialmarketfbrMagnetic
ResonancelmagirlgSyStemS，Whichprovideda boosttotheindustry．InOctoberl985，
therewere48MRIunitsoperatinginJapan，withmorethantwo－thirdsortheseusing
COnVentionalmagnets・BySeptemberof1988，thenumberofinstalledunitedhadgrownto
351，With1essthanaquarteruslngCOnVentionalmagnetsand60％usingsuperconducting
magnets・Atthistimethesuperconductingsystemswerepricedat2－5hundredmillionyen
PerSet・ByNovemberof1989，therewere643MRImachinesopeTatinginJapan，Of
ー59－
MRIUnLlSlrIUsclnJapan，byYc3JaJldTypc
AU O O　　　　　　　ハU n－　　　　　　．U
PU O O O O O
7　　　　　　　′0　　　　　　　5　　　　　　　4　　　　　　　　1J　　　　　　　つ‘
0ニト35　　　　　　　N。Y－S5　　　　　　JaバーSS S叩－3S SCP－39
亡コSCNagT贈．ン15T
ロSC工，tag。時1．5T
nscMagnet，10T
回scトtag。暗く05T
□pcnm加。n待tユダ融
車convc。HOnanhgnct
Figure13．　GrowthintheMRIMarketinJapan
（From”MRISochiSettchiByoinIchiran，”fiz9鉗，Rinjizokango，Vol・21，
No．24，1989，p．214．）
Whichabouttw0－thirdsnowusedsuperconductingmagnets－eXaCtlythereverseofthe
ratiofburyearsbefbrewhenthemarketwasjustopening．Figure13showsthisgrowthin
theMRImarketandtheuseofsuperCOnductingmagnets・57Thengufealsoshowsthat
muchofthegrowthhasoccurredintwosubmarkets：Smaller，lowneldmachinesratedat
lessthanO．6T，andl．5Thighneldmagnets．Intermediatesizedmagnetsandverylarge
magnetsoccupyamuchsmallershare．WiththeincreaSeinvolumeandexperience，the
COStOftheseMRIunitshavebeenbroughtdowrltOl－2hurldredmi11ionyenperset．
IncontrastwithU．S，manufhcturerswhohavetargetedthehigherstrength
machines，theJapanesehaveastrongercapabilityinthesmal1ersizedmachines．Formany
applications，SuChasorthopedics，thesmallermachinesareconsideredmorethanadequate
andhavetheaddedattractivenessofbeinglessexpensive，eaSiertoinstall，andtakeupless
SPaCe．Thismakesthesmal1ermachinesmoreattractivefbrthenumeroussmallhospitals
aroundthecountry．
57’’MRISochiSettchiByolnlchiran，Nfiz9」亜生地辿．Rinjizokango，VoL21，No．24，1989，P．
214．
－60－
ToshibaandHitachileadJapanesemanufhcturers，Havingsoldl58unitseach．
Theyarefo110wedbyShimadzuatlO5units，Yokogawa－GEMedicalat93units，and
Siemens一Asahiat79units．58Theselattertwocompaniesarejointventuresinitiatedby
nrmsoverseastopenetratethemarketinJapan．YokogawaElectricteamedwithGE
Medicalin1987andSiemenstiedupwithAsahiChemicalin1989．
AlthoughJapanesecompaniesarestrongathome，theyarenotasstrongabroad・
JapanesenrmshaveaverysmallshareortheU．S．MRImarket，1essthanlO％，andan
evensmallershareoftheEuropeanmafket．TheiroverseascompetitorssuchaSGeneral
ElectriC，BTi，OxfbrdTechnology，andSiemens，aremOreteChologiCal1yadvanCedthan
theJapanesenrms．
Outsideof－Japan，SOmeOfthesemanufhcturershavealliedwithnrmsoverseasto
helppenetrateMRIandrelatedmedicalmarkets．In1989，ToshibapurchasedtheMRI
divisionofDiaS0nicsInc．of－sanFranciscotohelpfurthermarketitsmachines．Hitachi
Ltd．andPhilipsalsotiedupinthesameyearinajointventureinConcord，Massachusetts
tobeginmanufhcturingCTscanners．WhileHitachi’spresenceissmallintheU．S．MRl
market，Philipshada7％shareinl990andToshibaa8％share．Althoughthisisstillfhr
behindtheU．S．leader，GEMedical，itssharehasfhllenslightly丘om47％in1986to44％
in1990．WithGEMedical，Seimens（22％）andPickerIntemational（11％）combiningfbr
77％oftheU・S・market，Japaneseflrmsseeroomfbrdisplacement・59
Thecostofthesuperconductingwireisgenerallyestimatedat5－10％thecostorthe
MRIsystem，Whichyieldsanestimateofl．5billionyenfbrthewireusedinMRIdevices
inJapan．Thetotalsuperconductingcableandwiremarketisestimatedtobe2．0billion
yeninJapaninl989．60Thisrepresentsabout25％oftheworldwidemarket・
Thus anerdecadesofdevelopmentalworkontechniquestoprocessthematerials
intousefulwiresandcablesorfilms，andthentofhbricatethewiresandcablesornlmsinto
usefuldevices，theLTSmarkethasslowlyexpandedtopenetrateanumberof’commercial
markets．Consideringthecommercialmarketasawhole，OneeStimateisthatinl990，the
WOrldwideconsumptlOnOffhbrimtedproductswhichincorporatesuperconductive
materialswillbeabout＄54．8billion．Thebulkof－thismarket，＄45．lbillion（82％），isin
instrumentationandmedicaldeviceswithothermarketsincludingapplicationsinelectronic，
58Kazufumi．toh了′MRlmagIng：，Lg地March1990，PP，30－31．
59AmalKumarNa5．．．GEAimstoCutMedicaJlmaglngCosts：工垣A麺吐些軋塾堅む塾些血
September10，1990．
60Estimatebasedonconversationswithmanufacturers．AJsoreferencedwasthepaperby，
HirohisaShioda，”R＆DonSuperconductivityinJapan，’FurukawaElectricCompany，March1989，
andStrategicAnalysISInc．，’’StrategicOpportunitiesinSuperconductors：AGlobalAnalysis1990－
2005，〝JuJy10．1990，Reading，PA．
ー61－
industrial，aerOSPaCeanddefbnse，POWergeIleration，andtrarlSPOrtation．Theseare
summarizedinTable6．
Intheearly1990’S，themafketwillcontinuetogrowwiththeadvanceofthe
nation’Sfusionandparticleacceleratorfhcilitiesaswellasthroughgrowingmarketsin
miniatureSynchrontronOrbitalRadiation（SOR）fhcilitiesfbrICproduction，CyClotronsfbr
medicalprocess，andSQUIDsfbrmagneticneldmeaSurementS・AmarketinexcessoflO
billionyenperyearinJapanisanticipatedduringthisperiod．
NatureoftheIndustry
Formostofitshistory，themajormarketsfbrsuperconductingmaterialshavebeen
inspeCialityordermarketsmuchmorethancommercialmarkets．Magnetsfbraccelerators，
fusionexperimentaldevices，MHDexperimentaldevices，etc・，havebeentheprimaryuses
ofthetechnology．Themarketoperatedlargelythroughcontractsratherthanthrough
generallyspecinedandcommerciallymarketeddevices．Themainexceptiontothis，again，
hasbeentheMRImarketwhichdescribedearlier．
Theresultofthistypeofmarketisthatentrycanbedimcultascapabilityoften
Weighsheavilyincontractevaluation，withexperiencebeingvitaltocapability．First
entrantsthushaveamarketadvantage．Oncetheirpresenceisestablished，theyareina
Table6．　　EstimateoftheWorldwideConsumptionorFabricated Superconducting
Materials＿199061
EndUseIndustry Value
（MillionS）
PercentofTotal
InstrumentationandMedical
Electronics
hdustrial
AerospaceandDefbnse
PowerGeneration
Transportation
61strategicAnalysISlnc・，OP・Cit・
－62－
1．1　7　0　7　7　′b
45　2　2　1　1　1
2
00　5　4　3　3　3
POSitiontoperpetuatethisadvantagebyleveragingtheirexperienceandrecordinfuture
Prqjectproposals・Withaslowgrowingandirregularmarket，thechancesfbrentryare
furtherreduced．
Theconsequenceof－thisfbrmofmarkethasbeenthatthemajorplayersinthe
industryhavebeenlimitedoverthe30yearcommercialhistoryinJapan．Ahandfulof
nmlShavecomprisedthebackborleOfthelowtemperatureSuPerCOnductivityindustryin
JapaIl．
ThenrmsactiveindevelopingLTScanbegenerallydividedbetweenthosethatare
SuPpliersoftheprimaryprocessedmaterialsandthosethatincorporatethesematerialsinto
SyStemSanddevices，andthosethatareverticallyintegratedtodoboth．Asallofthemajor
COmmerCialapplicationstodatehaveinvoIvedfbrmingthesuperCOnductingmaterialsinto
Wires，tOCOnStruCtmagrletS，thefirmsthathavebeenthelocusofmaterialsdevelopment
andprocessinghavebeenintheCableandWireindustrialsector・Thesuperconducting
materialsdevelopedbycompaniesinthissectorarethenintegratedintodevices，agaln，
Principallymagnets，bynmsthathavetraditionallycome丘omtheHeavyElectrical
Equipmentsector．Intheelectronicsarea，SuperCOnductivitycontinuestobealmostentirel）▼
aresearchactivity，withtheexceptionofaverysmallmarketinSQUIDdevices．
ThereareeightnrmsintheCableandWiresectorthatarelistedinthenrstsection
OftheTokyoStockExchangeandwhichdominatemostof－thecableandwiremarket．The
mostactivenrmsinthedevelopmentofsuperconductingproductsareFurukawaElectriC，
HitachiChble，SumitomoElectriC，ShowaCable，andFujikura．Althoughnoonenrm
dominatestheJapanesemarket，Furukawa王三1ectricisthelargestwithclosetoa35％share．
Thisisfbllowedby HitachiCableat25％，andSumitomoElectricandShowaCd）le，eaCh
With15％ofthemarket．ThesesharesaresummarizedinTable7．
Becausesalesinthismarketareprimari1ythroughcontractstolargeprQjects，the
CyClesthatanrmmustgothroughcanberatherlarge．Onecableandwiremanufhcturer
notedthatcyclesbetweenprq7eCtSCanmeafltha?wiceaSmarlyWOrkersneedtobe
reassignedtootherprqjectswhiletheyarebetweenorders．Thusakeytoncontinulngin
thisindustryhasbeentohavetheabilitytorespondtoallofthemarketpossibilitieswithin
thisfield．
Ofthesemajorcableandwirenrms，however，OnlyFurukawaElectric，andtoa
lesserextentSumitomo王三1ectdc，aretOtallyintegrated：OnlythesetwonrmsareiIIVOIvedin
thefullspanofdevelopmentactivitiesfiommaterialsdevelopmenttosystemsproduction．
Theotherfirmsfbcusonthematerialsandcableproductionprocessesandworkwith
SpeCincmanufhcturerstoproducesystemsanddevices．
－63－
Table7． ApproximateSharesofSuperconductingCableandWireMarketby
M毎OrManufhcturers－198962
Fim ApproximateShare
FunlbwaElectのc
HitachiCable
SumitomoElectric
ShowaCable
KobeSteel
35％
25％
15％
15％
5％
Others（F可ibnCAble，　　5％
etc．）
AL汀OMOBlLE
NONFERROUS
GL＼SSand CER′＼MlCS
CONSLIⅥERELECTRONICS
CHEMlCAlj
UnLmES
SHpBUUDmG
IRONandmEL
COMMUNICパnON
トHCELELECrRICMACH．
CA月LEandlⅥRE
HEAVYELECTRエC
AVERAGENL：ヽ用EROFYEへR50FR⊥DINSUPERCONDUCTIVJTY BYSECTOR
：車
計
0　　　　　　　　　　5 10　　　　　　　15　　　　　　　　20　　　　　　　　25　　　　　　　〕O
YeユrS
Figure14・　AverageNumberofYearsinSuperconductivity，byIndustrialSector
62Estimatesbasedonconversationswithmanufacturers．
ー　64－
TheprincipaldeviceandsystemsmanufhcturersincludeMitsubishiElectriC，Hitachi
Ltd．andToshiba．Figure14showstheaveragenumberofyearsthatactivenrmsfiom
varioussectorshavebeeninvoIvedinsuperconductivity・63Thengureshowsthatthe
activenrmsintheCableandWiresectorhadbeeninvoIvedfbranaverageof22・5years，
WithSumitomoElectricclaimingthelongestinvoIvementof30years．FirmsintheHeavy
ElectricalEquipmentsectorhavebeenengagedfbranaverageof27．4years，withthe
Principalactors，Hitachi，ToshibaandMitsubishiElectriC，allenteringbetweenl958and
1961．Thengurealsoshowsthatoutsideofthesefbwnrmsandsectors，entryintothe
fieldhasbeenmuchmorerecent．
Fr〝尺どαがβ乃∫
InthecasesofHitachi，ToshibaandMitsubishiElectricresearchbeganatthe
SyStemSanddeviceorganizations．Atthebeginning，SuPerCOnductingmaterialsweremost
Strikingfbrtheirnovelity，andasthesecompanieshadestablishedcentralresearch
laboratoriesatthissametime，theyhadmoreofacapabilitytodevotesomeresearchtimeto
exploringtheproperties．Asthepossibilityofmanufhcturingusefu1magnetsoutofthese
materialswaSrealized，theworkwastransfbrredtothecableandwireamliatesor
arrangementsweremadewithcableandwiremanufhcturerssothatexistingexpertisein
manufhcturingcouldbeexploitedtoenterthismarket．
Becauseofthesehistoricalrelationships，itisnotgenerallythecasethatthevadous
Cablenrmsfieelynegotiatewithvarioussystemsmanufhcturersfbrprqjectsthatarise．
InsteadmanyofthecablemanufhcturersselltospeCincsystemsmanufhcturerswithwhich
theyworkinarrangementsthatplaceahigherpri0rityonpurchasing丘omthepartnerthan
丘omotherfirms．InsomecasesthesepalnngSgenerallyfbllowtraditionalkeiretsLL
relationships，andinotherstheyarenon－keiretsubutstablerelationshipswhichhave
developedovertime．
AstheFigure15shows，HitachiCablesuppliesvirtuallyallof－itscabletoHitachi
Ltd．，andShowaCablesendsitsproductsalmostentirelytoToshiba．Bothoftheselinks
fhllwithinthenrms’keiretsu．althoughSumitomohassomecapabilitytoproducedevices，
itisalsothepnmarysupplierfbrMitsubishiElectriC，inalong－termrelationshipthatisnot
COntainedinonekeiretsu．Simi1arly，FurukawaElectriCalsosuppliesMitSubishiElectricin
63Thedataarefromasurveyof60fim唱COnductingresearchinsuperconductivity．These
Organizationaccountforoverg0％ofthepatentapplicationssubmittedinsupeTCOnductivityby
firmsbetweenJanuary1987andthesummerof1988．
胃65－
Cable
Makcrs
Systems
Developers Ltd．
Hitachi Showa Fujikura Sumitomo Furukawa
Cable Cable Cの1e Electric ElectriC
1　　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　　1
1　　　　　　　1
Hitachi Toshiba ETL Mitsubishi王ilectriC
Figure15．　Keiretsuandlong－termrelationshipsbetweenCの1esuppliersandsystems
developeIS
anon－keiretsurelationship，howeverorallofthenrms，FurukawaElectricisthemostfu11y
integrated．
Forsmallercableandwirenrmsthathavenotestablishedthesevertical
relationships，breakingintotheLTSmarkethasbeendimcult．Contractswithdevice
manufhcturersarehardtoobtainandthecyclesbetweenprqjectscanbesevere．Asa
result，OneSuChmanufhcturer，Fttjikura，hasreliedprincipal1yonitsrelationshipwiththe
govemmPnt’sElectrotechnicalIAboratory（ETL）fbrmostofitsmagnetsales．
Althoughtherearenofbrmalestimatesof’thesizeofthekeiretsuvs．non－keiretsIL
markets，aneStimatebasedontheaboverelationshipsisthat40％ofsuperconducting
Cablesandwiresexchangehandsinkeiretsu，30－35％areprocessedentirelyinintegrated
nrms，and15％aresoldinnon－keiretsubutlongtermrelationships，andl0－15％aresold
Ontheopenmarket．
Fortheindustry，thekeiretsu andlong－termrelationshipshavekeptanumberof
COmpetitorsaliveinasmallmarket，PreVentingdominancebyasinglenrm．The
COmpetitionfbrcontractshasmaintainedsomelevelofincentivesfbrinnovation．
However，aSthemarketexpands，fbreignmanufhcturersofsuperconductorswillnnd，1ike
F可ikura，thatbreakingintothisnetworkisdimcult．Sofbreignnrmswouldbeexpected
tocomeinwithdevicestosellandthroughjointventureswithJapanesenrmswhichhave
theserelationshipsestablished．Thisappearstobethecaseinintemationaljointventuresto
PrOduceMRIdevicesasdescribedearlier．Ifthewiremarketitselfbecomessigninmnt，Or
ifthecontractedmarketsuddenlyexpandsfbmagrowthinfusionoraccelerator
－66胃
teclm0logy，however，Wemaynndthatsuperconductivitymayfbllowinthepathorother
highteclmologymarketstotheintemationaltradetable．
尺ハピ（爪・／いlピJバ小、
Inadditiontotheirworkinmagnets，thesepnncipalsystemsdevelopersarealso
amongthemoreprominentinresearchinthinnlmsandelectronicapplicationsofthe
material．Thisconcentrationofdevelopmentactivityisrenectedintheresearchbudgets
reportedbythenrmsrespondingtothequestionnaire．TheHeavyElectricEquipment
SeCtOrrepOrtedthegreatestlevelofspendingin1986，PriortotheHTSdiscovery，Of－2．25
billionyen，withtheCableandWiresectornextatl，07billionyen．Togetherthesesectors
represent62％oftheprivatesectorresearchinvestmentinLTS．Twenty－Sixnrmshaving
activeLTSR＆Dprogramsinl986reportedspendingatotalof5・33billionyen・64Figure
16showsthissectoralconcentIationorR＆Dinvestment．Intermsofpersonnelthis
tIanSlatestoareportedll2researchersintheHeavyElectricSectorand51researchersin
theCableandWireSector．
Whenthenrmsintheironandsteel，Shipbuilding，andmorepurelyelectronicsand
COmmunicationsindustryareadded，96．5％oftheLTSresearchin1986reportedbynrms
SurVeyediscovered．
InadditiontotheresearchatthemainlaboIatOriesfbrthenrmsintheHeavy
EquipmentSector，isalsoasubstantiallevelofdevelopmentactivityattheproduction
divisions．Firmsreportedalevelofdevelopmentstaffatthedivisionsthatoftenequalled
theresearchstaffatthecentral1dboratories．Theseindividualsareoftencountedamongthe
productionstaffandconsequentlyabsentffommosttalliesofR＆Dactivity，andtheirtime
mayonenbespentonsmallengineeringmatters．Howeverrecognizingtheirpresence
PrOVidesamorecompletepictureofthescaleofteclmicalactivityinthecommercialization
Of－thistechnology．ThusiftheR＆Dstaff．andtheenglneeringstafraretogetherconsidered
thetechnicalstaff，thetotalwouldnearlydoublethesectoralvaluesfbrR＆Dstaff．
Thisconcentrationofinnovationinthesesectorsisalsorenectedinthepatent
applicationdata，Figure17．Dataofpatentapplicationsannouncedbetween1971and
1987fbrthetop20patentingnrmsshowthattheHeavyElectricsectorisdominantwith
theCableandWirenrrnsandtheElectronicsnrmscomposingthebulkoftheremainder．
64An”activefirm・・isdefinedasonereporting20rmOrereSearChersworkingInreSearChonLTS．
－　67－
／′バ．fr椚／〃J／丁
ThusatthetimeofthediscoveryofHTS，theirldustrywascomposedofanumber
Of－1arge，PrimarymaterialsprocessorsandsystemsanddevicedeveloperSWhichrepresent
SOmeOfJapan’slargestandmostsuccessfulcompanies．Althoughthemarketsweresmall，
Participationbynrmswasstableoverthefirsttwodecades．Shouldmaterialsshow
PrOmiseofcommercialuse，thenetwo正sfbrproducinganddifrhsingtheinnovationare
alreadyinplace・Atthesametime，HTSoffbredtheopportunityofprovidingacrackinthe
insulatedsuperconductorindustry．
－68一
Figure16．　SectoralDistributionofInvestmentinLTSResearch
INVESTMENT rN LTS R＆D BY SECTOR－1986
SH】PBULmING
ー69－
HEAVYELECTRIC
N u m b e r
ー　」○　－
NumberorPatentApplicationsinSupcrconductivitybyMajorFirmsinVal’iousInck1Strial
Scctors，byYcarAnnouncccl
0　　　　　　0　　　　　　0
0　　　　　　0　　　　　　0
5　　　　　　　dH rJ
P a　－1　　e n　・1 八　nr＋nr・－・・1　C a t・I O n S
71　72　　7〕　74　　75　　76　　77　　78　　79　　80　　S1　82　　8〕　84　　85　　86　　87
Yc：lr∧11110川1cc（l（1．5Yer汀Sバtcrllmnnr）l）llC；tlion）
m other
回1ヨcctr。l－ics＆C。間?一．
［］C油1日目。＝Vir。
竃IIe値yI三l∝lric
コ望re－」・　SeclO邑UistきutiOnOrActiくity5．LTSRe綜arChRe詳C－edinPatent
AppliPtiO己
1旦址二RF．ゝPrlヽSETOTl?三rHS（10VFR’OFt?GH TEMPERベ11」ilニ
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Ⅴ．
Uponthediscoveryofhightemperaturesuperconductivity，theJapanese
govemmentmOVed”atthespeedoflight．”Ordidthey？InthissectionIwillreviewthe
responseoftheprivatesectorandthegovernmenttothediscoveryofHTSinanattemptto
Showhowpolicyunfbldedandwhateffbctthegovernment”lead”hadintheoverall
responseinR＆Dtothisnewopportunity．
BednorzandMeullerpublishedtheirdiscoveryofhighertemperature
SuperCOnductivityintheSeptembereditionoftheGermanjoumal言な垣dl立札垣迦速．
Whattheyobservedwaswhatappearedtobesuperconductivityoccurringatatransition
temperatureof－30K，Whichwas7Khigherthantheexistingrecordof23Kachieved
throughNiGe・However，thedatadepictingthetransitiontemperaturewerenotentirely
CleanandtheyhadnotyetdemonstratedtheMeissnerEfftct．65
Thediscoverythusawaitedconnrmationandmonthspassedwithoutnoticeable
nurryinthescientinccommunity．ThenewsmadeitswaytoProf二ShQjiTanaka’s
laboratoryattheUniversityofTokyoseveralmonthsiater，inAugust，thankstothecareful
eyeof－Prof．KazukoSekizawaatNihonUniversity．66Shehadbeenconductingresearch
intothepossibilityofsuperconductivityoccurringinjustsuchaperovskitematerial，and
realizingthepotentialsignincanceoftheIBMwork，quicklypassedthenewsontoher
COlleaguesbyphone．ShecalledProf．Kitazawa，alsooftheUniversityorTokyo，Who
quicklysharedtheinfbrmationwithPror．Tanaka．TheKitazawaandTanakalaboratories
thengearedupandfbcussedtheworkoftheirresearchteamsonthetaskofconnrmingthe
highertemperaturesuperconductivity．
OnNovember28，Prof．Tanakaannouncedhisconfirmationofhighertemperature
SuPerCOnductivityinaceramicmaterialinanarticleintheAsahiShimbun（Newspaper）．67
InthearticlehenotedthattheyhadverinedtheMeissnerEfftctwiththeLanthium－Barium，
65AwidelycirculatedviewthathasdevelopedsincethenwasthatBednorzandMeuller
PurPOSeZypublishedinalesscircu．atedGermanjOurnalratherthananinternationalpubZicationso
thattheycouldbothlayaclaimonthediscoveryaswelIasbuythemselvestimetoconfirmwhat
theythinkthattheyhavefound・Scienceheredoesnotseemtobefreeofcompetition・
66Rumorshavecircutatedthattheinformationcame†roma†oTtuitousvisitofaJapanese
researcherto旧M．butthisisdisputedinJapan．InOctober，Prof．MasakeTakashigefromthe
UniversityofTokyowasvisitingthe旧MZurichIaboratoryandthereJearneddirectlyaboutthe
experiments．Whilethisprovidedcon桁mationoftheworkunderway，itappearsnottohavebeen
”theevent’’whichsparkedIabsinJapan．
67・・ChodendonoShinZairyowoHakken－・Koon・demojubunnaugoki，・・虫避止塾也塾担，
November28．1986，P．3．
ー71－
Copper－OxidematerialdescribedbytheIBMreseardlerS・Howeverinreality，thedata
WereStilllessthanperfbct，andProf・Tanakaandhisstudentswereworkinglonghoursto
PrOduceacleangraph．
ThencametheannualwintermeetingoftheMaterialsResearchSocietyinBostonin
eadyDecember．OnWednesday，December3，Pro［Tanab’slaboratory丘lallyproduced
cleandatawhichverinedtheoccurrenceoftheMeissnerEffbctwiththisnewmaterial，and
theresultswerefhxedtoProf二KitazawainBoston．OnThursday，December4，duringa
sessionwhichincludedpapersonsomeolderoxidematerials，PaulChugaveapresentation
attheendofwhichheannouncedtheconnrmationoftheIBMnndings．Prof．Kitazawa
thenpresentedtheresultsthathehadjustreceived，andthehightemperature
superconductivityboomhadbegun．
Howdidthegovemmentandtheprivatesectorrespondtotheconnrmationofthis
discovery？Inbrier，theprivatesectorreactedveryquickly，andthegovemment，
particularlyMITIandtheSTA，VerySlowlyincreatingprogramstosupportresearchin
HTS．Examinationof－thisresponseshowsthatevenaSthepdmarypromotersofscience
andtechnologyinthegovemment，thesebureaucraciesarestillboundbytheproceduresof
thebudgetaryprocess，andtheseproceduresarenotdesignedtoaccommodatethequick
SuPPOrtOfnewdiscoveriesinscience．Inthisinstance，COntrarytOPOPularimage，MITI
WaSnOtthefhstestbutthesIowestorganizatiorltOreaCt，lagglngtheinitiativesofSTAand
MOE，andlaggingtheresponseoftheindustrywhichitisonenenvisionedasleading・The
timingoftheseactionsandtheprocessthroughwhichfbrmalgovemmentpoliciescameto
fbrmwillbedescribedbelow．
TheGovernmentResponse
Contrarytoitsirnageasoneofthegovemment’sslowestandmostbureaucratic
Organizations，theMinistryofEducationwasthenrsttoprovidefundsfbrHTSresearchas
aresultofProf．Tanaka’sconnrmation．Withinacoupleofweeks，Prof．Tanaka，aSWell
asseveralotheroftheprofbssorsinvoIvedinoxidematerialsresearch，fbundthatthe
Ministryhadtransftrredseveralmillionyentotheirkoza，mOneyintendedtoallowthe
PurChasenewequipmentfbrHTSexperiments．
TheMinistry’Sthreeyearsuperconductivityresearchprogramwasscheduledto
COnCludeattheendofMarch1987，buttheMinistryrespondedtotheHTSdiscoverywith
SurPrisingdecisiveness，COntinulngitssupportbyextendingtheprqjectfbranotheryear，
169millionyenwasallocatedthroughtheGrant－in－Aidprogramwithfineenindividuals
Selectedandthethemesnarrowedtoone，OXidesuperconductors．
－72－
TheScienceandTechnologyAgencywasthenexttocreateaprogram，fbrmingthe
NewSuperconductingMaterialsForumunderthewingofoneofitsassociations，The
SocietyofNon－traditionalTeclm0logy．Thepurposeofthefbrumwastoserveasan
infbrmationclearinghousefbrnewdevelopmentS，domesticallyandintemationally，inthis
neld．ThenrstmeetirlgWaSheldonFebruary26，1987，justtendaysafterPaulChuhad
announcedatapressconfbrenceofamaterialwhichappearedtosuperconductat
temperatureSabovethatofliquidnitrogen．Formanyinattendance，thiswasthenrst
OCCaSiontohearaboutthebreakthrough，givingthefbrumaverypositivestart．Withina
monthmembershiphadgrownto60nrms．
DuringtheJanuarytoFebruaryperiod，Plansfbrprogramstosupportresearchin
HTSmaterialsbegantofloatupthroughtheranksofSTAandMITl，buttheseplanswould
takemoretimetounfbld．
ThenextmovemadeinpolicycircleswasbypoliticiansintheNationalDiet．In
February，Smal1studygroup，al’kondallkai，′rwasfbrmedintheLiberalDemocraticParty，
1edbyTakashiTawara，aCivilengineeringgraduateofKyushuUniversityandaperson
WhowasatthetimetheDirectorof’theLowerHouseCommitteeorlCommerceand
Industry”ShugiinJoinIinkai，l’andwhohadbeentheparliamentaryViceMinisterto
MITI．
OnApri116，1987，nineteenmembersoftheLiberalDemocraticPartyannounced
thefbmationoranaSSOCiatiorlfbrmedtosupportgovernmentinvoIvementin
SuPerCOnductivity，the’’ChodendoSangyoGiinRenmei．〝　TheRenmeiwaschairedby
SeiryokuKajiyama，aSeniormemberofttheTakeshitafhction，WhowaSChairmanofthe
LowerIlouseCommitteeonCommerceandlndustryandwaslatertobecomeHome
MinisterandDeputy－SecretaryGeneraloftheParty．
ThestatedgoalsoftheRenmeiwerethefbllowing．
AssuringtheallocationoffhndsfbrthepromotionoftheR＆Danddevelopmentof
industrialapplicationsofsuperconductivity．
Acquiringexperimentalequipmentafldresearchfhcilitiesneededfbrthe
developmentofindustrialsuperconductirlgteChnologies．
Promotingpoliciesfbrtheeducationofpersonnelneededfbrthedevelopmentof
industrialsuperconductingteclm010gies．68
TheeffbctoftheRenmeiinpolicy－makingwi11bediscussedinthefbllowing
SeCtion．
68chodendoSangyoGiinRenmei．・・Shuisho，NAprH・6，1987・
一73－
TheSTAfbrmallyannounceditsplanstosupportaR＆Dprogramin
SuPerCOnductivity，OnSeptember21，1987，WhentheResearchandDevelopmentI）ivision
OftheScienceandTechnologyAgencyreleaseditsreport，’ChodendoZのiryOKe′lkyu
KaihatsunoAratanaTenkai，”（ANewStageintheResearchandDevelopmentof
SuperconductingMaterialS）．69HereSTAdescribeditsplantodevelopa”Multi－Core
Program，’’whichcenteredaroundasetofSTAlaboratoryfhcilities，eaChresponsiblefbra
difTbrentpri0rityresearchtheme．Thestrategywasthusdrawn，buttherewasnofhnding
tomovequicklyintoaction．ThestartoftheMulti－CoreProgramwouldhavetowaitfbr
thebeginningofthefbllowingnscalyear，inAprilof1988・
ThenrstoverallstatementofpolicytowardHTS丘omthegovernmentwasnot
announceduntilNovemberofl987．TheCouncilfbrScienceandTechnologythroughits
PolicyAdvisoryCommitteeapprovedthereleaseofastatementdrawnupbyaspecial
COmmitteesetuptoconsiderpolicytowardHTS，the’’ChodendoNiKans〃・uKondaTlkai′′
（SuperconductivityDiscussionGroup），intheirreport’lChodendoKeflkyuKaihatsuno
KihontekiSuikhinHosakuniTiLite，〝（ABasicPolicyfbrthePromotioT10fResearchand
DevelopmentinSuperCOnductivity），70theynotedthepotentialfbrthecontinuingrapid
advanceofthisneldandtheimportanceof－thusmovingexpeditiously．Thereportmade
generalstatementsfbrtheincreasedsupportofresearchfunding，reSearChertraining，basic
researchfhcilities，andtheexchangeofinfbrmation．
Final1y，inDecember，MITI，throughthereportofitsowndiscussiongroup，the
’’ChodendoSangyoGtiutsuKaihatsuKondankai，’’announcedthatitwouldestablishajoint
researchcenterfbrtheexplorationofHTS，withfundingtobeprovidedbyboththe
governmentandtheprivatesectorparticipants．
OnJanuaryl4，1988，theIntemationalSuperconductivityTechnologyConsortia
（ISTEC）helditsinauguralceremonyattheImperialHotelinTokyoandaweeklater，On
January21，WaSfbrmallyregisteredasanon－PrOntOrganizationwiththegovernment．The
OmCefbritsadministmtivesectionwa50penedintheShimbashisectionofTokyo．
Laboratorywork，however，WaSnOttOStartuntilJulywhentheNagoyalaboratory，
Whichfbcussedonresearchinhighcurrentproperties，beganoperation．Themainresearch
Center，inShiTlanOmaChiontheoutskirtsof－TokyofbrmallybeganoperationonOctober25，
1988．
69KagakuGijutsuchoKenkyuKaihatsuKyoku，”ChodendoZairyoKenkyuKaihatsunoAratana
Tenkaド‘KagakuGijutsuchoKenkyuKaihatsuKyoku：Tokyo，September21，1987．
70KagakuGijutsuKaigi，dChoudendoKenkyuKaihatsunoKihontekiSuishinHosakuniTuite：・
KagakuGijutsuKaigi：Tokyo，November1987．
ー74一
Withthebeginningofthenew缶scalyearinAprilof1988，theMinistryof
Educationbegananewthree－yearPrOgraminsuperconductivity，thistimefbcusslngOn
OXidematerials・TheprograminvoIved19principalresearchtasksunderthreethemes，
fundamentalstructuralanalysis，neWelectronics，andoxidesandchemicalcomposition．
TheScienceandTeclm0logyAgencyalsobeganitsoperationoftheMulti－Core
programbybeginningthedistributionorfundstoeachofits”core”researchfhcilities．
TheIndustrialResponse
WiththegovernmentrespondinginfbrmingpolicyandR＆DprogramsaS
describedabove，OneWOuldthena5khowthiscompareswiththeresponseintheprivate
SeCtOr．Doesgovernmentpolicyseemtoleadorlagtheactivitiesof－theprivatesector？
AllofthefirmsengagedinsuperCOnductivityresearchatthetimeofthediscovery
reportedthattheyinitiatedresearchintooxidesuperconductorswithindays，andinsome
CaSeSbefbretheDecemberannouncement．TheattemptsbytheTanakaandKitazawa
laboratoriestoconnrmtheIBMdiscoverywasknownbymanyofthesenrms，andthe
moreadventurous，nOtablyHitachiandSumitomoI三lectriC，begansimilarresearchintheir
ownlaboratoriesonasmallscaleinthefhllof1986．
0rleOftheappealingcharacteristicsofthisnewmaterialwasthatlittlenewcapital
investmentwasneededtogetstarteditsresearch．ThusnrmSnOtyetinvoIvedin
SuPerCOnductivitydidnotfhcemqjorinvestmentbarriersinenteringthisnewfleld，and
manynrmsinrelatedmaterialsindustriessuchasglaSS，Ceramics，Steel，andmetalalloys
begana5Signingresearcherstomonitorthedevelopmentsandbeginexploratoryresearch．
Themqjororganizatiorlalmoves，however，OCCurredintheestablishednrms．
InFebruary，Matsushitacreatedasimilarinter－1aboratorypIQjectteamtoexplore
SuperCOnductingmaterialsanddevices．Withanumberofresearchfhcilitiesandamliated
researchfhcilitiesspreadaroundtheOsakaarea，andwithresearchteamsexpertin
COmmunicationdeviceslocatedinYokohama，thefunctionoftheprQjectwastoprovide
administrativeandnnancialsupporttoallowthelaboratoriestoshareexpertiseand
infbmationd）OutneWdevelopments．
Oneofthenrstm句OrOrganizationalcommitmentwasmadebyHitachi，inMarch，
Whenitfbmedafbrmalthree－yearinter－1aboratoryprqjectinsuperconductivity．Known
asa′′tokken”prqject，itinvoIvednewfundsfbrequipmentpurchaseandmoreimportantly
thesharingofexpertiseamong60researchers丘om12diffbrentlaboratoriesandthree
PrOductiondivisions．HitachilaboratoriesparticipatingincludedtheCentralResearch
Laboratory，HitachiResearch，HitachiCable，HitachiChemical，theMechanical
－75－
EngineeringLBboratory，theEnergyhboratory，theProductEngineeringhboratory，and
theAdvancedResearchI．aboratory．Inaddition，reSearChersfiomtheRinkaiBranch，Naka
Branch，andMainBranchofHitachi，Ltd．，alsoparticipated．
AIsoinMarch，a30researchersatNEChadfbrmedaniTlfbrmalprqjectteam
CuttingacrossdeparhentstoinvestigateHTSmaterials．FormedundertheirPF－II
（PrqjectFundamentalII）system，itallowedresearderstoorganizeforindependent
researchwithoutspecialreportingrequirementstooraid丘omthecompany・AtSumitomo
ElectriC，aSuperconductivityR＆DGroupwasfbrmed，andinAprilToshibainitiateda
speCialprqjecttoinHTSandIshikawqiima－Harima（Ⅱ玉）fbrmedaHTSprQjectteam・
Bythemiddleoftheyear，alargenumberofcompanieshasfbrmedgroupsto
pursueresearchinHTS．InJune，FujiElectricfbrmedaHTSresearchteamatitsBa5ic
Researchhboratory，drawingonresearchersfiomanumberofdifftrentdepartments，and
inthesamemonthatFttjitsu，SuPerCOnductivityresearchattheirCentralResearch
LaboratorywasreorganizedintothreenewgroupsallofwhichincludedHTS：1）Materials
R＆D，2）SemiconductorCrystalGrowth（ThinFilms），and3）JosephsonJunctionsand
ElectronicDevices．OthernrmsfbrmingsuperconductivityR＆DteamsincludeMitsubishi
ElectriC，KawasakiSteel，MitsubishiMetalS，andShowaCable．
InSeptember，FurukawaElectricfbrmedanewSuperconductivityDepartmentatits
YokohamaR＆DLゐoratoryinaneffbrttocollectinonelaboratorythediversityof
expertisetheyfbundnecessaryfbrthepursuitofHTS．Ceramicists，Chemists，OPticalnber
SPeCialistswereplacedtogetherwithresearchersinmetallicsuperconductingmaterials・At
thesametime，theotherdepartmentscontinuedtheirHTSresearch，Withtheceramics
department，fbrexample，havingtumedtheirattentionalmostentirelytosuperconducting
materials．InOctober，SanyoannouncedithadfbrmedfbrmalHTSresearchteams・
Thefbllowingyearsawacontinuationofthistrendtowardreorganizingfirm
researchtoallowamixingofexpertiseinHTS．InJanuaryl988，SumitomoElectric
establishedaSupercorlductivityDepartmentinitsOsakaLaboratory，Whichtookthelead
fbrcoordinatingnrm－WideHTSresearchwiththewotkalsounderwayattheBasic
TechnologiesLAboratory，theInfbrmationandElectronicTechnologyI．aboratory，theItami
Laboratory，andtheYokohamaLaboratory．InMarch，thePF－IIactivityatNEChadbeen
upgradedtoaPF－Iprqject，Whichmeantthatitwouldberecognizedasafbrmalpri0rity
PrQjectofthenrmandgivenspecialnnancialsupport．Inadditionaltothefhnds，thisalso
meantthattherewouldbeagreaterlevelofstabilityinthed）ilityofresearcherstopursue
thiswork．And，inApri1，ToshibaestablishedaBasicResearchhboratorywithhalf－ofthe
lab’S84researchersassignedtomaterialsdevelopmentanddeviceapplicationsofHTS・
ー76－
Table8．　　TimingofPolicyandPrivateSectorResponsestothe
DiscoveryofHighTemperatureSuperconductivity
Date PohcvEvent
1986
November　28
HTSEvent
Tanaka Announcement
in Asah Shimbun
Announcement atMRS
Mee血g
Chu Announcement
OfHTSabove77K
American Physical
Society Meeting，
’1Wood5tOCk of PhysICS”
December4
1987
Februaryl6
Mbrch
April
July
August
September
October
NoYember
December
First Superconductivity
Forum（STA）
MOEExknd5
SuperCOnductlvity
R＆DPTOgram
LDP DlSCUSSlOrlGroup
ProjectTeam
Group
Superconductivity
BudgetPropoSd5
Subm拇dto MOF
MultトCore Program
Plan Announced
Coundl for Science
andTechnology
AnnouncesPolicy
in SuperCOnductivity
MITI Announces
Fomation orISTEC
ー77－
Private Sector Event
NEC－PF－IITeam
Mat5u5hita・・Special
PrctiectGroup
Hitachi－Tokken”Project
Sumitomo ElectriCPrc
づectGroup
Toshiba・ProjectGroup
IHl－PTQjectTeam
MitSUbiShl Electdc－
Fujit5u－3ProjectGroups
FujiElectnc－ProjectTeam
MitsubiShi Meta15－Project
Team
KawasakiSteel－Project
Team
Showa Cable－Project
Furukawa－SCDepartment
Sanyo－SCGroup
Date PolicYEveIlt
1988
January
February
HTSEvent
NRIM Announcement
OfBismuthAlloyHTS
atllO K
Univ．of ArkanSaS
Announcementof
ThaliumAuoyHTS
at125K hlarch
April
hlay
June
July
August
September
OCtOber
November
DeCember
l989
January
February
MbrCh
ISTEChaugural
Pa吋
ISTECOffice Open5
MOEBegin53・Year
ProgrむnhOxide
Sui光rCOnductors
Mlj1ti－Core Program
Begin5
ISTECNagoyaLaboratory
Opens
ISTECMain Latx）ratOry
Opens
肩78肩
Private Sector Event
Sumitomo Elecbic－SC
Depanment
Toshiba－　BasIC ReseaTCh
bb
Fujikura－SCDepartment
Hの急Chi Research・SC
Center
Continuingintol989，inJanuaryFujikuraChblecreatedaSuperconductivity
TechnoIogyDepartmentinrecognitionofintemalgrowthinstafrthathadoccurredoverthe
PaSttWOyearS，andinMarch，HitachiResearchreorganizeditssuperconductivityR＆D
underoneroofandannouncedthefbmationofanewSuperconductivityResearchCenter．
TheseeventsaresummarizedinTable8．
eJJe肺の間のγβか仇旭
FrommyquestionnairedataonecanseethatthesewaSSubstantialdiversification
intosuperconductivitya丘ertheHTSdiscovery．Figure18comparestheinvestmentin
SuperCOnductivityR＆Din1986withthatin1989bythenrmssurveyedinvarioussectors．
WhereasthenumberofprincipalsectorswerefbwandtheHeavyElectricandCableand
Wiresectorsweredominantin1986，thesituationwa5quitedifTbrentin1989withmany
moresectorssignincantlyinvoIved．SeparatingtheLTSandHTSactivitiesasseenin
Figure19confirmsthatthediversincationisoccurringinHTSTeSearCh，withthetraditional
industriescontinuingtobestronginLTS．
Throughthisdataandadditionalinfbrmationaboutindustrialactivityoveralltaken
丘ompatentapplications，thesizeoftheindustrialinvestmentinsuperconductivityin1989
WaSeStimatedat19．4billionyen．Ofthisamount，34％wasgolngtOLTSand66％going
toHTS．Thisoverallamountis60％higherthanthel2．06billionyenestimatedfbrl988
bytheU．S．OmceofTechnologyAssessment．71TheseestimatesareshowninFigure20．
Analyzlng the GovernmentReSPOnSe
Onepointwhichbecomesclear丘omthedescriptionofpublicandprivatesector
responsestoHTSwasthattheprivatesectorwasmuchquickertorespondinsupporting
researchthanwerethebureaucracies．NeitherdidMITImoveatthe”speedoflight”72nor
diditevenleadtheprivatesectorintheyearfbllowingthisdiscovery：73MITIlagged．The
nmlSmOVedquicklyandontheirown．MITI，infhct，WaStheslowestofthethree
710fficeofTechn0logyAssessment．BighbOTAE－
440，Apri11990，P．93．
72MichaelCrow，・・Techno，ogydeve，opmentinJapanandtheUnitedStates＝Jessonsfromthe
high－temPeratureSuPerCOnductivityrace〝塾垣匹と旦喧＿塾地，VoI．16，No．6，December
1989．
730urJTECPanefwasmuchimpressedbytheimportantro．ethattheJapanesegovernment
PlayedinsettingtheoverallpolicyandprioritiesfortheJapaneseR＆Dprogram，andinguiding
andmonitoringtheimplementationoftheR＆Dprogramsubsequently．”JapanTechn0logy
胃79－
Washi⊃gtOコ‥Z↓一S－NO＜eヨber一∽呂も．ふ．
E＜aFat5．コCeコ｛er． LTEC Pa⊃e一Re
・－∞ロ　ー
○ユ○⊃〓i h↓eヨe「atureSu ercOコductぞi
∧UTOMOI】1LE
NONFEllIl0US
GLへSSTuldCER＾MICS
MJCEL．ELECTRICM＾CIZ．
CliEMICALS
UTHJTIES
CONSUMER．ELECTRONICS
COMMUNlC＾TエON
Il10NandSTEEL
C人口LEandlVIRE
SI引PDUuDユNG
HEAVYELI：Cl、RIC
＾VElt＾GESUPERCONDUCTIVITYR＆DljUDGETSOFSUltVEYEDHRMSliYSECrOR
DZ86BUDGET
ロ89BUDGET
0　　　　　1　　　　　2　　　　　3　　　　　4　　　　　5　　　　　6　　　　　7　　　　　8
100日1illiollyell
コ望re－∽　　Inve?1menIB．SupercOndGCti妄yin－竺麗こらd－冨冨ySectOr・
AmOn的Su「くeyed句iヨ一S
PROPORTION OFIJS VS．HTS R＆DIN SURVEYED FIRMS－1989
1－∞－－
SHTPllULIDING
UTILITll三S
llEAVYELECTRTC
C＾nLEnndWIRE
MICEL．ELECTRICM＾CH．
COMMUNrC＾TION
IRONandSTEEL
CONSUMERELECTRONICS
人UTOMOI3ILE
CIIEMICALS
GL＾SSnndCER＾MICS
NONFERll0US
0　　　　川　　　　20　　　　30　　　　40　　　　50　　　（10　　　　70
且pcr川G?T
ロpcTLOWT
句i望re－u　　旨くeStmentinPTSくS．HTSiロー￡アトヨOn的Sulくeyedロ【ヨS
ConlParisoll0rSurvcyRcsultSrOrSupcrcon（hlCtivityll＆Di－1叩nn m川ICU・S・
－　∞N　－
R＆Dl〕uClgCHor
SupCrCOnduclivily
US－88（0T∧） J人l）∧N胃88（OTA） JAl一八N－89（ll；川C）
Fi望reg COmpa計OnOr詳timatesOrFdCStユa】句Gndin的OrS喜erCOnductiま卑R紆D
bureaucraciestomove・Howthiscameaboutandhowpolicywassettledgeneral1ywillbe
describedlaterinthischapter．
ThebreakthfOughinHTCdidnotoccuratanopportunetimeinthegovemment，s
budgetingprocess．TheendofDecembermarksthedeadlinefbrde丘ningallbudgetsthat
wi11besubmittedtotheDietfbrthefbllowingnscalyearbegiminginApri1．ThfOughout
December，Sta汀intheMinistryofFinanceworkfienetic，nearlyaroundtheclockhoursto
Settlealloftheaccountingdetails，andthelastthingthattheywanttOhearisthatministries
needmoremoneytoexploreanewscientificphenomenon．ThustheR＆Dsupporting
ministriesandagencieswereconfiontedwithseveralchallenges：1）toquicklynndawayto
advancethisnewphenomenon，2）todosoinawaythatwoulddistinguishtheirresearch
丘omcompetingministriesandagencies，and3）todosoinawaythatcouldcircumventthe
lackof’newnear－termfunding丘omtheMinistryofFinance．
・lJJ′二∫・、J′一、可と’血ド（高′状
Asmentionedeadier，theMinistryofEducationwasthenrstofthebureaucraciesto
respondinresearchsupport．Howdidthishappen？ThekeytotheMOEresponseare
Organizationalandliesinl）thepowergiventoProfbssorswhoadvise，aCtual1ycontrol，the
researchprograms，and2）thenexibilityandshorterdecisiontimesneededintheirsystem
Ofdistributingresearchfunds．
InlateNovember，theMinistryofEducationwasnearingtheendofathree－year
researchprograminsearchofnewsuperconductors，andhadlittleprogresstoshow．They
WerethushighlypleasedthatPro［TanakahadsavedtheMinistryffomhavingtoreport
thatithadnonewdiscoveries，andeagertocapitalizeonitsroleinsupportingthe
COnnrmationofHTS，theMinistrywaswillingtobemovedquickly．
BecausetheheadquartersstaffoftheMinistryofEducationisnotstaffbdwith
individualswhohavescientincorengineeringbackgrounds，theyhavecometorelyheavily
OnanetWOrkofadvisorycommitteesofProfbssorswhofbrmulatetheactualresearch
POlicy．TheMinistrywieldsitspowerthroughitsgatekeeperfunctionovertheresearch
budgetanditsnodoftheheadtothecommitteemembers’decisions．
TheChairmanoftheadvisorycommitteetothesuperconductivityprqiect，Profl
Nakqjima，quicklymovedtoallocatetheremainingequipment丘ndsintheprqjecttothe
lal）OratOriesconductingresearchininorganicsuperconductingmaterialS．Asaresult，Pro〔
Tanakaandothersinthisarea，reCeivedthetimelybonustotheir”koza．’’
Addingtothenexibilityinthedecision一makingprocessistheshorterleadtime
requiredfbrapplyingfbrandthencreatingnewprogramsintheMOE．IntheGrant－in－Aid
ー83－
fbrScientincResearchProgram，thereisaspeCialfundkn0wnaSthe〃TokubetsuKenkyLL
Sokushinhi，”（SpecialResearchPromotionFund）whichhasbeensetuptorespondtothis
typeofunexpecteddevelopmentinscience，aSWellasunexpeCtedpoliticaldemandS0f
SCience．Theresearcherswerethusabletoscratchtogetheraquickproposalfbraoneyear
exlensionthatwouldallowcontinuedworkinthesenewoxidematerialS．Thisallowedfbr
apreservationofsomeresearchmomentumwhileaplanfbralarger，mOreCOmPrehensive
researchprogramcouldworkitswaythroughthenormalfundingsystem．
Onemustalsorecognizeacertainamountofserendipityinthetimingofthescience
andtheresearchprogram．Hadtherenotbeenanexistingprogram，mObilizinganetwork
Ofresearcherswouldnothavebeenasreadilyaccomplished．Researcherscouldshare
infbrmationaboutworldwidedevelopmentsinthisnewneldattheiralreadyplannedthird
annualsymPOSiumofthesuperconductivityprqjectheldonJanuaryl9，1987．
乃エビ∫cig′工Ced′ldrec加0わgyAge′lCy
IntheScienceandTechnologyAgency，bureaucratsgatheredininfbrmalgroups
SOOnafterTanaka’sannouncementtodiscussprogIamOPtions．UnliketheMOE，theSTA
headquartersstafriscomposedofindividualSwithsciencebackgroundswhothemselves
COntinua11yconsidernewresearchprogramstocrcate．Therefbrethesebureaucratsand
theircounterpartsinSTA’snational1aboratoriestooktheleadindevelopingaresearchrole
fbrtheAgency．Keytotheirstrategywasfindingawayofcreatingaprogr；mquicklyto
PrOteCttheirclaimedroleinthesupportofadvancedresearch丘omusurpationbyMITI．
Duringtheautumnof1986，discussionswerealreadyunderwaywithinSTAabout
CreatingafbrumthatwouldpromotecommercialinterestinsomeoftherecentLTSworkor
OneOfitslaboratories．NRIMhaddevelopedanumberofnovelmethodsofprocessing
metal1icsuperconductorsandseveralbureaucratsinSTAfdtthataneffbctivemeansof
diffusingthisknowledgewouldbethroughthecreationofanorganizationtodisseminate
theresults，mOdeledafterthesuccessfu1experienceoftheNewDiamondForum．
TheNewDiamondForum，eStablishedinJulyofl985，WaSCreatedtopromote
diamondmaterialsandprocessingtechniquesdevelopedattheNationalResearchInstitute
fbrInorganicMetalS（NIRIM）aswellastobeageneralclearinghouseofinfbrmationabout
WOddwidedevelopmentsindiamondprocesslngteChniques．74NIRIMhaddeveloped
diamondprocessingequipmentthatwascapableofcompressingrawmaterialssucha5SiC，
74Forasummaryofthetechnica．deve．0PmentSleadingtotheformationoftheNewDiamond
ForumseeY・Goto／DiamondoGoseiGijutsunoGenjotoShorai：andM．Kamo／Mukizaishitsu
KenkyujoniokeruDaiyamondonoKisoGoseドin世型迦也Vol．1，No．1，1985．
一84－
Si3N4，OrA1203intodiamondsatthehighestpressuresachieval）leatthattimeinthe
WOrld・TheinstitutealsodevelopedmicrowaveplasmaCVDtechniquesfbrproducing
diamondnlmsfbrICpackaging，highoutputtransistors，1ightemittingdiodes，andlaser
lightemission・Thefbrumbeganwith85corporatemembers，andafternveyearshaS
increaseditsmembershiptoll30rganiZations．Ithasdevelopedareputationfbr
identifyingqualityinfbrmationfbranominalsubscriptionfbeandwashigh1yevaluatedby
itsparticipants．
ThediscoveryofHTSthusoccurredjustasbureaucratsinSTAwereplanningto
Organizeafbrumfbrsuperconductivity．TheexcitementoverthediscoveryofHTSgave
theideaabigpushasalowvisibilityideawastransfbrmedintothenagshipofSTA’sentry
intothearena．
Speedinorganizingtosupportthedevelopmentorthisnewareawasimportantfbr
technologiCalaswellasfbrpoliticalreasons．Forthescienceandteclm0logy，reSearChers
aroundtheworldwerepursuingthisnewphenomena，Oftenwithshiftsworkingaroundthe
ClockonnewcompositiorlSandprocessingtechniques．Tobeabletocontributeatthe
丘ontierofthisnewneld，STAwouldsimilarlyhavetoactsoon．
AnevenmorepresslngPreSSure，however，WaStheneedtoestablishlegitimacyfbr
itsroleasaprimaryplayerinthepromotionorthisneld．BothMOEandMITIhad
OngOingprogramsinsuperconductivityandastronginterestinclaimingapositionaSthe
leadorganizationinthegovernment．IrSTA，Wantedaplaceinpromotingthistechnology，
ithadtomoveswinlytodevelopabaseofsupportandtodevelopaprogramthatwould
reinfbrceitsjurisdictionandbuildupitsstrengths．Otherwise，thefundingwouldgoto
MITIandMOE：timeandstrategywereimportant．
STAestablishedastrongpoliticalfbotingthroughthequickrecruitmentofDr．
ShinrokuSaito，fbrmerPresidentoftheTokyoInstituteofTechnology．Dr．Saito
possessedaverystrongreputationasaprogramheadinboththeacademicandindustrial
Circles，arldhispresenceasheadof－theSTAactivitywasseentoprovidecriticallegitimacy
fbrtheagency’sadvanceintothisarea．AsDirectoroftheNewDiamondForum，hewa5
alsofhmiliarwithSTA’sstrategy．InearlyJanuary，STAenlistedDr．Saitotoserveasthe
principaladvisorandchairmanoftheforum．hter，MITIalsoapproachedDr．Saito
abouttakingaleadingroleintheirprogram，butthecommitmenthadalreadybeenmade
andthebureaucraciesdonotlikehavingtheirleadersworkingonbothsidesofthefbnce．
WithDr．SaitoagreeingtobeChairmanofsuchasForum，STAhadwonanimportantfirst
Step．
Althoughthecreationofaninfbrmationfbrumwasafhstandproductiveroutefbr
STAtoclaimitsroleinthisarea，itwasstillnotresearch．AsSTAischargedwith
一85－
promotingfundamentalresearchandasitslaboratorieshadalonghistoryinthis
technology，itseemednaturalthatithavearoleinanygovemmentpresenceinthisnew
neld．
DuringJanuarySTAconvenedadvisorymeetingstodiscussoptionsfbr
approachingthisopportunity．SomeinSTAfbltthatthiswassuchasignincantdiscovery
thatitwarrantedaseparatecenterfbrresearch．Itwasalsoknown，however，thatMITI
WaSpurSuingsuchanideawiththeprivatesector，andthatMITI’swellintegrated
relationshipwiththeindustrywouldlikelyyieldthemmoresuccessthanSTA，ShouldSTA
attemptedasimilarstrategy．
Dr．SaitorecognizedSTA’srelativeweaknessiritadoptedthisstrategyandalso
pointedoutthattheestablishmentofsuchacenterwouldsurelytaketime・STA’s
advantagewouldlieinspeedandintheexistingresearchcapabilitiesofitslaboratories．He
thussuggestedthatexistingfhcilitiesbeexploitedandenhanced，witheachfbrming
SPeCialtycenterswithuniquecapabilitiesthatwouldconductresearchincollaborationwith
theindustryanduniversities．Thisideabecamethecenterpieceoftheresearchprogramthat
STAwasabouttocreate．
Dr．Saito’sideawaswelcomedbytheSTAlaboIatOriesasitmeantthatresources
WOuldnotbefunnelledtoanewfhcility，Whichmightfurtherdepriveexistingactivitiesof
fhnds．Insteadofreducingresources，theprqjectwouldprovideasignincantinnowof
newcapitalfbrtheseexistingresearchgroups．Politically，itwasthusaneaSyideatosell
Withintheagency．Duringthesediscussionsoverprogramstrategy，thelocationsand
technicalthemesofthecenterswerealsodecidedandthenameMulti－CoreResearchPrqject
wasfbrmalizedinthemiddleofJune．
ThefbrmalstartoftheMulti－CorePrQject，however，WaSmOrethanayearaway．
Anewallocation丘omtheMOFcouldnotbeexpecteduntilthefbllowingnscalyear，Which
WOuldstartinAprilof1988．Thisleftabundanttimefbrtheplarmingcommitteetodraw
upaproposalfbrinclusioninthebudgetcyclethatwouldbegininAugust，butresearch
WaStakingofrelsewhereinJapanandabroad．EvenasJapan’sprincipalbureaucracy
Chargedwithsupporting丘ontierareasofscienceandtechnology，theagencyhadvirtual1y
nomechanismtoobtainnewfundstosupportthediscovery．Meansofprovidingfbr
excitingnewdiscoveriesinsciencearenotpartoftheMinistryofFinance’smenu，and
SymPatheticearswerenottobefbund．
Withouttheabilitytoobtainnewfunds，STAwasleftwiththeoptionof
reallocatingfundsfiomotherprqjectsundertheirjurisdiction．Butwithintheagency，eaCh
budgetitemhasitsownagencyconstituency，Withitsownrationaleofimportance，andits
－86－
ownfielingofbeingunderfunded．AspointedoutbyTanakaandHiraLSaWa，75unlike
decision－makingincompamblebureaucraciesintheUnitedStates，decisionsinJapanese
bureaucraciesaremadeinnegotiationsbetweensectioIIChiefi．Decisionsareseldom
dictatedfk）mabove．AlthoughtheGeneralCoordinationOmceofSTAischargedwith
OVerSight，itsjobismuchmorecoordinationthanpolicydecision．Intheabsenceofa
decision－makingauth0rity，however，Cha喝eSSuChasbudgetreallocationcanbe
Stalemated，andthisiswhatseemedtohappeninthecaseofHTS．Nosignincantfunds
WerereallocatedbytheSTA．
WithoutnewfundsfiomeithertheMinistryofFinanceorfi・Omthemotheragency，
itwaslefttothelaboratoriestonndwaysofsupportingnewresearchinthisarea．The
OnlyoneofSTA’slaboratoriestodosotoasignincantdegreewaStheNationalResearch
InstitutefbrMetalS（NRIM）．Herefundswerereallocatedratherquickly丘omthe
Director’sdiscretionaryresearchbudgetand丘ommoneyreceived丘omSTA’sSpecial
CoordinationFundsfbrPromotingScienceandTeclm010gyfbrasoontobeterminated
PrQjectinsuperCOnductivity．FromtheDirector’sbudget，aPprOXimatelylOmillionyen
WaSallocated，andanotherlOmi11ionyenwasshifted丘omtheongoingprQjectin
COnVentionalsuperconductivitytopurchasesomeofthematerialsandequipmentnecessary
togetstartedonHTSresearch．76AttheNationalResearchInstitutefbrInorganicMetals
（NIRIM），WhichlatercooperatedwithNRIMinthediscoveryandidentincationofthe
Bismuthbasedsuperconductors，nOfundswerefbrmallyreallocated．
Throughthenrsthalfofcalendaryearl987，thelaboratoriessubmittedand
resubmittedresearchandbudgetproposalstotheadvisorycommitteeandtoSTA．The
advisorycommittee’primaryrolewastoprovideateclmicalreviewtoconnrmthepri0rity
Oftheareasidentined，andtojudgethentoftheresearchwithactivityatotherlaboratories．
STAprovidedtheadministrativecoordinativeroleforthevariouscoreandplayedthe
importantbutveiledroleof－communicatingwithMITItoguardagainstobviousredundancy
intheirprqjects．ThisprecautionislessbecauseMITIandSTAwishfbrharmonybetween
theirprograms，theywouldbehappytousurptheothefsposition，butbecausetheyknow
thattheyfhcethebudgetaryknivesofMOF．AlthoughMOFbureaucratsdonothavethe
technicaldepthtounderstandtheresearchprogramindetail，theymaystillbesmartenough
tospotobviousduplication，anddbviousduplicationisanathematoMOF’saccountants．
75Y・Tanaka，T．一magawa，andR・Hirasawa，・Decision－makinginJapan・sScienceandTechn0logy
PoJicy：draft．1990．
76ThesebudgetfigureswerereportedinNSFReportMemorandum＃122，New
’’SuperconductingMateriaJsResearchattheNationaIResearchlnstituteforMetaJs（NRIM）in
Tsukuba：May18，1987．andwereconfirmedinconversationwithDr．MaedaofNRIM．
－87－
〟月7
Belyingitsreputationasaleaderoftheindustry，MITIwastheslowesttomoveand
hadtobepressedintoactionbyinterestedparties．Once，prOdded，however，MITIshowed
thestrengthofitsinvisibleadministrativehand，aSiteventuallyconvincedalargenumber
Of－nrmstomakeasubstantialinvestmenttosupportitsentryintoHTS・
AtthetimeoftheconnrmationofhightemperaturesuperconductivityMITIhada
numberofprQjectsthatwereunderwayorplannedtodevelopandapplyLTSteclm0logy・
Howeverthisworkwasdeviceandsystemsoriented，relyinglargelyonexistingLTC
materials．Exzmplesincludethesuperconductingelectricgeneratorprqjects，theJosephson
junctionelementofthesuperCOmPuterprqject，andthediscussionoverdeveloping
SuPerCOnductingmagneticenergystorageprototypeSyStemS・Althougheachofthese
PrqjectscouldincorporateHTS，nOneWereaPPrOPriatefbrabroad－baseddevelopmentof
thetechology．
BytheendofDecemberl986，therewasstilllittlesignthatMITIwasintendingto
doanythingaboutthepromotionofthisdiscovery，perhapsthinkingthatitstillbelongedin
theuniversitiesandnationalldboratories．
TheperiodbetweentheendofDecemberandthebegirmingofJanuaryisJaparl’s
largestnationalholidayseaS0n，’’S／10gatSu，”thecelebrationoftheNewYear．Citypeople
traditionallyusethistimetoretumtotheir’’pLruSatO，’’theirparents’orgrandparents’home
townstotakepartintheNewYear’sfbast，’′osechiryOri，”payrespectsatthelocalshrine，
′′hatsumode，”andconducttheobligatoryrelativevisits．It’soneofthefbwtimesofthe
yearswhenthetrainsinTokyoarenotcrowdedandwhenthemajorityofcompaniesand
StOreSClosesimultaneously．It’saholiday．
ButresearchonhightemperaturesuperconductivitywaSaCCeleratingaroundthe
WOrld，includinginmanyofJapan’suniversitiesandprivatelaboratories．Convincedof’
theseminalsignincanceofthisdiscoveryandconvincedoftheneedfbrmoresubstantial，
COOrdinatedsupport，Pro［ShqjiTanakabegantheprocessof’’nemawashi”toprodMITI
intoaction．Prof．TanakahadbeeninvoIvedasanadvisorwithseveralMITIR＆D
PrOgramSbefbreincludingthefhmedVLSIprograLmandtheOptoelectonicTechnology
Program．HewasfhmiliarwithbothMITI’swayorthinkingandwithmanyofthe
ministry’sbureaucrats．
DuringtheNewYear’sHoliday，Prof二TanakacalledoneofhisMITIacquaintances
andsaidthathehadanurgentmattertodiscuss．TheMITImanvisitedProf．Tanakaathis
homeandthereProf二TanakaimpressedupontheneedfbrMITItotakeactionsoon
一88－
becausel）thiswasafieldinwhichJapanwasalreadyattheintemationalstate－Oflthe－art，
2）alackofactioncouldcauseJapantobl1furtherbehind，Znd3）ifthetemperatures
COntinuedtorise，thiswasabreakthroughwiththepotentialofhavingarevolutionary
impactacrossallindustriesanduponsocietyinternationally・ThisMshogatsuMmeetingwas
thenrststepinsettingtheMITImachineinmotion．
TowardtheendofJanuary，MITIorganizeditsnrstadvisorycommitteemeetingon
thisphenomenontodiscusswhetheritshouldtakeanyaction．I）uringthelunchbreak，Dr．
TsuneoNakal1ara，VicePresidentfbrR＆DatSumitomoElectricCorporationaskedProf二
Tanakatoaccompanyhimfbraquietconversation．Dr．Nakaharahadfbrmanyyearsbeen
anardentproponentofsuperCOnductingteclm0logywithinthecorporation．Althoughtheir
researchhadbeenunderwayfbrmanyyearswithonlymarginalcommercialretum，Dr．
Nakaharaftltthatonlythroughcommitmentinthelong－termWOuldtheinvestmentsyield
thecompanybenents・TheHTSdiscovery，hefilt，addedtremendous1ytothepotential
impactofthismaterial・
Dr・NakaharaagreedwithPro［Tanakathatthiswasindeedanepochal
breakthroughandrecognizedthatsustainedresearchsupportneededtobeachieved．He
askedProf．Tanakahowhemighthelp．ProflTanakarespondedthatbecausehisresearch
WaSdemarldingalotofhistime，hecouldnotdevoteasmuchtimeaShewantedtobuilding
SuPPOrtfbrpolicyaction．Dr．NakaharaonbredhisservicestoletMITIknowthatthe
privatesectorwasalsoseriousaboutthepotentialofthisteclm0logy，andafterthismeeting
hadhisjuniorstaffcontacttheirclassmatesandfhendsatMITI，impressingtheimportanCe
Ortakingpositivepolicyaction．MITIwasthusgraduallynudgedintoaction．The
impetustogetMITImovingwasextemal，nOtintemal．
Therewasstilltheproblemofaconstrainedgovemmentbudgetandatleastayear’s
timebefbreanynewmoneyatallcouldbeappropriated．ThusevenifMITIweretotake
quickaction，itwasn’tclearwhattheyshoulddo．
AwarethatSTAwouldleverageitsfbrmalroleasthegovemmentorganization
responsiblefbradvancedresearch，MITIcarefu11yemphasizeditsauthorityoverindustrial
activitiesandthepotentialimportanceorHTStofhtureindustrialdevelopment．Speedin
establi血ingafbotholdwasanissue，butmoreimportantwasthelackoffundsinthenear
fhture．MITIrealizedthatatimelyresponsewouldrequireprivatesectornnancing．Ifable
toweigh－inexhibitingsignincantindustrialinterest，pushingSTAasidewouldbealess
dimcultproblcm．
Thisiswhentheideaofacooperativeresearchcenterthatwouldbeinitially
endowedandstaf托dentirelybytheprivatesectorbegantonoattothetopoftheagenda．
InallofMITI’sResearchFoundationsandResearchAssociations，thepracticeofhaving
－89－
theparticipatingnrmssupplytheendowmenthadbeenestablishedaswellasthepracticeof
thenrmsprovidingthestafrfortheseorgani2adons・MITIwouldnormal1yprovidethe
fhndstoconductallorpartoftheR＆I）．Thusitwassuggestedthatasimilarcoursebe
taken，Withthelaboratoryimitial1yestablishedwithprivatemoney，andwithMITI
PrOmisingfhndsfbrresearchinthefbllowingnscalyear．Lo腿ting，equipping，and
Organizinga】aboratorywouldtakesometimeinanyCaSe，SOthatthiswouldbea
PrOductivewayofdealingwiththetimelagbeforeMITIfundingcouldbecomeavailable．
However，inthecaseofvirtual1yallpastassociations，theendowmentaskedof
firmswasonlyenoughfbromceope王ation，andthestafrhgrequestedwassmalIinnumber
andlimitedtoofncewofk．Inthecaseofthisresearchcenter，theywouldneedmuchmore
thanthat．Theywouldneedalaboratory，ratherexpensiveresearchequipment，and
researchstafffiomeachoftheparticipatingnrms．Inaddition，unliketheresearch
associations，Whichhadalimitednumberofparticipantsfbcusingondennedtechnology
goals，itwasnotclearhowmanywouldbeparticipatinginthiscenterandwhatthegoalsor
theproductswouldbe．Forasignincanteffbrt，itwasclearthatsignincantparticipation
WOuldbenecessary．Althoughsomeoptimistswerearguingfbrastaffof200，amOre
achievablesizeoflOOresearchersbecamethegeneraltarget．
Firmsthatwouldbeparticipatingasfu11mernberswouldbeaskedtocontributelOO
millionyeTltOtheendowmentofthelaboratory，tOPayanannualfbeof12millioIlyen，and
tocontributetworesearchers．Thisisalargeinvestmentfbranunknownandlargely
unappropriableactivity，SOnrmSWerehesitantandtheapprovalofuppermanagementtook
time．
ButthisisonereasonthatMITIexists，tOCqjoleandtorecruitcommitment．
〟1〃’∫∫けdJgg）7げRgCr通れどれrdndAあーん南汀のveGのdd′lCe
AsakeystepindevelopingtheresearchcenterfbrISTEC，OneOfMITI’sprimary
Challengeswasinrecruitingacriticalmassofnrms．Acriticalmasswasnecessarynotjust
toachievedesiredteclmicalprogressortoshowalevelofpoliticalsupport，butalsoto
allowfbrfbrmationofthelaboratory．
Recallthatinconsideringthedecisiontoparticipate，aSimplerationalactor
assu汀】Ptionholdsthatthef3mlWOuldcomparetheprobabilityofsuccessmultipliedbythe
magnitudeofsuccesswiththeprobabilityoffhiluremultipliedbythemagnitudeoffhilure．
InacasesuchasHTSresearch，thecalculationwasveryvaguebecauseofmajor
uncertaintiesaboutthephenomenonandthespeedofprogress．However，theadditionof
－　90－
WhyisaCriticaiMassisNeededfortheConsorlia？
Numbe「ofPaH：叩a柚gOrG己nlZations
Threshdd Number
OfO「；己mZat】〇nS
Figure21・　CosゼBenefitCurveShowingtheRoleofaCriticalMassofParticipantSin
aCommonResearchFacility
COntributorswi11morelikelyafTbctthepotentialpositiveoutcomesmorethanthecosts，aS
thecostsaremorenxedbytheindividualinvestment．Thiscanberepresentedonthecurve
ShowninFigure22．
Thiscurve，Showsthemarginalbenenttothenrm，themarginalcosttothefirmand
thetotalbenentoftheprqject，dlasafunctionoftheoverallscaleoftheeffbrt．Thetotal
benentisassumedtobeabovethebenenttothenrm，elsethenrmswouldhaveno
incentivetoparticipate．Participationisattractivetothenrmwhenthelevelofoperationis
totherightoftheintersectionofthemarginalnrmbenentandmarginalcosttofims，POint
A・However，aSthisisresearchwithasignincantlevelofuncertainty，theperceptionof
Wherethatintersectionismayvarysubstantial1y．Thusthefurthertotherightthatthe
COllectivecanplaceitsoperation，themorecertainthenrmcanbethatthecosも屯enent
approximationwillbegreaterthanone．
ToservetheroleofpushingthispointtotherightfbrISTEC，MITIrecruitedalllO
Ofthenation’sutilitiesandtwoutilityresearchorganizations．Theutilities，however，are
一91－
0nlyprospectiveusersoffITSsystems，withlikelyuseinthedistant，nOtnear，term・They
arenotmaterialsdevelopersordirectusersofthematerial．Sowhydidtheyjoin？
Tounderstandthis，thediscussionwillretumtoadescriptionoftheprocessof
fbrmation．
WiththeprocesssetinmotionbytheadvocacyofProf．Tanakaandthelobbyingof
interestednrms，thewheelsbegantoturninMITItobegintheprocessofestablishinga
Center．Buttheinitialmovewasnotmadebythearminchargeofpromotingadvanced
research，theAgencyofIndustrialScienceandTechnology（AIST），butbytheAgencyfbr
EnergyandNaturalResources（ANRES）．
TheDeputyDirectorofANRESandheadofenergytechnologyprqjects，Kunikazu
Aisaka，hadbeentryingtopromoteiIICreaSedresearchintheutilities・HefbltthattheO・6％
OfsaleswhichutilitieswerecontributingtoR＆DwaStOOlowaratioandthatthetypeofresearchperfbrmedneededtoincludedmorebasicworktohelpoffketcriticismsofthe
utilities（andJapan）alwaysbeing丘eeriders．ThediscoveryofHTSprovidedan
OPPOrtunitytopromotehismoregeneralgoals．
ThusANRESmovedtorecruitorganizationstoparticipateintheresearchcenter
thatProf．Tanakawasseeking．Theagencyusedargumentsaboutthelong－termimpactof
thetechnology，aSWellasitsinfbrmalinnuence，COmmOnlyknownasadministrative
guidance，tOreCruitalllOoftheutilities，2utilityresearchorganiZntions，3gascompanies，
and5cableandwireandsystemsmanufhcturers．
ImportantleversfbradministrativeguidancewhichANR王Spossessedwere
twofbld．Firstisthe”KoekiJigyo，”whichprovidedANRESwiththeauthoritytosetrates
fbrtheutilities，muChasapublicutilitycommissionwouldintheUnitedStates．Thus
ANR王Shasthepowertostronglyaffbcttheprontsoftheutilitiesaswellasregulatetheir
investmentsandsitings．Thesecondtoolisthespecialfundsfbrresearchwhichcome
丘omaO．2percenttaxontheutilitysales．Thereareactuallytwosuchfundsthatare
relevant，the’7）engenKaihatsuSokushin7bisaku7bkubetsuKaikei（SpecialPromotion
FundsfbrtheDevelopmentofElectricityGeneration）”andthe’等ekitanNarabi／liSekiytL
のObiSekiyuDaitaiEnerugiTbisakuTokubetsuKaikei（SpeCialPromotionFundsfbrthe
DevelopmentofCoal，Petroleum，andNon－PetroleumEnergySources）．”Thismoneyis
distributedbacktotheutilitiesandtomanufhcturersfbrelectricpowerresearch．When
ANRESftelsstronglyaboutapolicymeasurewhich，inthiscase，WOuldnotsignincantly
burdentheutilities，theutilitiesarenotinapositiontotumadeafear．
Ofteninnegotiationstogatheracriticalmassofparticipantsonecanobservethe
Phenomenaoftipping，SketchedinFigure23．Tippingoccurswhenonenndsthatthereis
apointintherecmitmentprocessaflerwhichonenndsthatadditionalnrmsjoinreadily．
ー92－
TipplngandUtilityParticipation
C甲ate lll
lll
e
ic甲ate
：　　NumberOfO「sanlZaいOnS
l
Th「esholdPa「てにpation
Figure22．　TippingandtheRecmitmentofUtilitiestoISTEC
Befbrethispoint，thenrmsaremorehesitznttoagreetoparticipatebecauseoftheburden
thatwouldbebomeiftheyweretheonly匹rticipants．Butonceanapparentcriticalmass
haSbeenachieved，reCruitmentis’’tipped’’andothernrmsjoinreadily．Notjoiningbrings
thesigmaofbeingperceivedasa丘eeriderandidentinedaSanOutSiderbyboththeother
utilitiesandthegovemmentregulator．
Inthiscaseitappearsthatalthoughtherewasnotsignincanthesitanceh・OmanyOftheutilities，
tippingoccurreda丘erthebigthreeutilities，TokyoElectriC，KansaiElectriC，
andChubuElectricdecidedtojoin．Withthesethreeonboard，theotherutilitiesreadily
COnCededtoparticipation．
Hereonemightwonderwhytheutilitieswouldnotbemoreresistantgiventhatthey
areusersofthetechnologyratherthanusers．InterviewsindicatedthattheR＆Dmanagers
intheutilitieswelcomedtheinterventionbyMITI．Thereasonappearstobeintheir
regulatedstatus．Unlikemanufhcturers，theutilitiesdonothaveastrongincentiveto
aggressivelypromoteresearchtoremaincompetitive・Someresearchisneededtokeepup
Withcompetitionfiomalternativesupplies，butthepressureisrelativelylow．However，all
Oftheutilitieshaveresearchcentersortechnicaldevelopmentgroupsandtheseindividuais
－93－
areeagertodostate－Of・the－artreSearCh・Thustheywelcometheleverageprovidedbythe
interventionofMITItoleveragefbrmoreR＆Dfundsintemally・Ratherthancomplain，it
wascommentedthatanumberofR＆DmanagersthankedMITIfbrtheintervention．
ThusthroughANRES，MITIwasd）letoconvincethemtoeffbctivelyactasabank
fbrtheprqject．Althoughthefundsarenotatrivialamountfbrtheutilities，thesizeofthis
investmentinISTECpales，fbrexample，Whencomparedwiththe＄30billioninnew
CaPitalequipmentpurchasedin1989．
AdministrativeGuidancealsoprovedhelpfu1infindingalocationfbrtheactivityaS
theANRESomcialsemphasizedthattheywerenotjustinterestedinmoneybutneededa
locationfbrtheresearch．Severalutilitiesandorgani2ationsoffbredsitesfbrleaSe．These
includedtheTokyoGassite，anunuSedpowerplantsiteinShinagawaownedbyTokyo
EiectriC，aSiteownedbyKansaiElectriC，andtheFineCeramicCenter（FCC）inthedistrict
OfChubuElectriC．ThesitesoutofTokyowerenotconsideredasattractivebythenrms
Whichindicatedaninterestinjoiningbecausemanywouldhavetorelocatetheirresearchers
丘omtheirTokyobasedlaboratories．Inaddition，theKansaiareawasthesiteoftheSuper
GMprogramsotherewasafbelingthattheyhadenoughSalienceinthisteclmology．
ChubuElectricanditsareapoliticianspressedfbrsomepresenceasitfiltthatitshistoryin
ceramicsandtheavailal）ilityoftheFineCeraLmicsCentermadeitalogicalcandidate．But
Nagoyawasfhr丘omTokyo．SoacompromisewasmadewithabranChfhcilityassigned
totheFCCandwiththeagreementthatthenrstintemationalconftrencehostedbyISTEC
WOuldbeheldintheNagoyaarea．
AlthoughtheadministrativeguidanceprovidedbyANRESwasthestrongest，they
WerenOtaloneasAISTbegantotakeastrongerinterestintheprQjectandeventuallytook
OVerWiththepromisetoincreasethefundingandthesizeofparticipation．
Thedetailsoftheremainderoftheconsortiabuildingprocesshaveyettobeopened
fbrpublicanalysissoit’sdimculttoknowwhichcarrotsandstickswereoffbredinthe
PrOCeSS．TheJapanesepresshasnotedthatthereluctancyofnrmstocommittherather
Signincantinvestmentrequestedwasaprincipalreasonfbrthedelayinbeginning
COnStruCtionofthelaboratory．770theranecdotaleVidenceexiststhatnotallnrmswere
eagerparticipantsinitial1y．KentBowenhascommentedthatmanyoftheelectroflicsnrms
WerereSistanttothisideaastheyfbltthattheirinhousesuperCOnductivityR＆Dactivity
WaSadequatetoaddressthisnewopportunity．78
77”ChodendoKogakuKenkyujoniMukeruKigyonoNetsuド地March1988，Special
Edition（Bessatsu），P．11．
78KentBowen，・AssessmentofJapaneseResearchonHighTcCeramicSuperconductors，”
WorkingPaper，1987．
－94－
ItmaybejustaSlikelyhowever，thatelectronicsnmlSSaWlittleimmediatebenent
丘omslightlyhighertemperaturematerialsintheirongoingdeviceresearch．The
PerfbmlanCeOfJosephsonJunctionsincomputersisadesignandmaterialschallengethat
isnotverysensitivetotemperature・Thustheimportanceofcommittingfundstogeneral
HTSmaterialsdevelopmentmaynothavebeenseenassuchhighpri0rity．79
Torecruitadditionalnrmsfbrtheactivitya’’consensus”wasfbrmedwithother
SeCtionsofMITIthatthiswaSanaCtivitywhichtheministryasawholeshouldsupport，
andsovariousarmsofMITIwerebroughttobear．Thisisanimportantpointbecausethe
AgencyfbrIndustrialScienceandTechnologyisatechnologypromotionarmof’MITIand
assuchha51ittledirectcoercivepowerovertheindustrygeneraIly．Howeverotherpartsof
MITIhaveregulatoryandlicensingfunctionswhichtheindustryneedsfbritscurrent
businessanditwasthroughthesearmsthatpressureswereapplied．Inadditiontothe
AgencyfbrNaturalResources，describedabove，thereistheIndustrialMachinery】〕ivision，
Whichcalleduponsomeofthenation’sm亘iorshipbuildersandindustrialmachinery
manufhcturers，theAutomotive Divisionputtingthecal1intoautomakers，eVenthrough，
again，theyarenotmaterials’developers．TheElectricalMachineryandConsumer
ElectronicsDivisionwascalledontoputpressureontheelectronicsandcommunications
nrms，andtheFineCeramicsOmcetocontacttheceIamicsandglassnrms．These
relationshipsareshowninFigure23．
Theorganizersofthisactivityalsowellrealizedthatdevelopingpoliticalandpublic
SuPPOrtfbrtheactivitywouldbeimportantfbrlongevityaswellasfbrmation．HTS
researchwasnotlikelytoyieldcommercialimpactinthenearfuture，SOabroadbaSeOf
Visibleinterestwouldhavetosubstitutefbrvisiblemarketretum．
Thusthrough1987100kedfbrotherorganiZationsfiomwhichitcoulddraw
SuPPOrtandresources．OnecategorywasorganizationsnotinvoIvedinthe
SuPerCOnductivityindustryWhichwerenonethelesswillingtoinvesttobothsupportand
monitoranindustrythatcouldyieldlargefutureretums．TheseincludedsixofJapan’s
majorbanks，eightconstructionnrms，tWOtradinghouses，andanadvertisingnrm．There
WerealsonrmswhichwereinvoIvedinsuperconductivityonlyonasmallscale，丘omthe
Chemicalsindustryandtransportationindustries，andnnallytherewerethenon－MITI
governmentorganizationswhichbecauseoftheirseparatebureaucraticamliationscouldnot
JOlnaSfu11memberseventhroughtheywereinvoIvedinsimilarresearch．Thereincluded
79lnaddition．firrnsingeneraldownplaythepositiveaspectsofMmprojectstoforelgnVisitorsas
anowcommonpoIiticaJstrategytoavoidaccusationsof’unfair”govemmentcollusion．so托’s
difflculttoknowhowmuchresistancewasactualIyoffered．
－95－
GovemmentAm IndustrialSectors
一一一一一一一一一H一一一一一一一一H一一一一一一一一一一．．一一一一．．一．－．－．・．－．．一．一一●．一一．4．．．．●．．．．．．一一．一一一一一一H一一一．一一一一一一H一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一．－．．一．．
AgencyfbrNaturalResources→→→Utilities
IndustrialMachineryDivision→→→Shipbuilding，IndustrialMachinery
AutomobileDivision　→→→→→→　AutomobileManufhcturers
ElectricalMachineryand　→→→→→Electronics，Communications
ConsumerElectronicsDivision
FineCeramiCSOmce　→→→→→→　GlassandCeramics
Figure23．　MITIOmcesandTheirhdustrialLinkagestoRecruitISTECMembers
NTT，administeredbytheMinistryofPostsandTelecommunications，andtheRailway
Researchhstitute，administeredbytheTransportationMinistry．
Toaccommodatethesenrms，aSeCOndtypeOfparticipationwascreated－regular
membership．TheregularmembersaregiventherighttoreceivepublicationsandsurveyS
andtoattendcenterseminars，butareIlOtPartytOtheprefbrentiallicensingagreements
giventofullsupportmembersortotheknowhowdevelopedinthelaboratory．Asnotall
SuChnrmsarecomparablynushwithcash，MITIalsosetupatwotierfbesystem．For
nrmslistedonthenrstsectionof－theTokyoStockExchangeorcomparablesizC，aninitial
donationof2millionyenwasrequested，Withannualfbesalsoof2mi11ionyen．Fornrms
listedonthesecondsectionoftheTokyoStockExchangeorofcomparablesize，anthe
initialdonationwasreducedtolmi11ionyen，andtheannualfbetohalfami11ionyen．
MITIalsousedininnuenceinobtainingahomefbrtheresearchcenter．hnd
anywherenearametropolitancenterinJapanisatapremiumandthelal）OratOryWaSalso
fhcedwiththeneedtoacqulreVeryeXPenSiveexperimentalequipmenttosupportits
research．Thusdiscussionswerecamiedoutwithinthegroupofparticipantstosearchfbr
anaffbrdableleaslngammgement．
Outsideof－thisgroup，pOliticianswerealsoatwotktoinnuencetheplacementof
thelaboratory．Thiswas，afteral1，tObealeadingintemationalcenterofresearch，and
Shouldbreakthroughsoccurwhichgreatlyexpandedtheuseofthistechnology，industries
WOuldcertainlybeattractedtothelocation．Abigeffbrttocapturethelocationofthe
胃96－
1aboratorywasputfbrthbypoliticiansfromtheNagoya－Gifuarea・Thisareapridesitself
Onitslonghistoryinceramics，withit’sindustriesproducing60％（check）ofthenation，s
Ceramicproducts・Severalyearsearlier・in1986，theprovincialandcitygoverTmentSalong
withlocalindustryandMITIhadestablishedaFineCenmicsCenter（FCC）fbrresearch
intoadvancedceramicmaterialS．SinceitsfbundingtheFCChadaccumulatedabroad
rangeof－state－0手the－artreSearChtooIs，andhalfofthebuildingspacewasstillavailablefbr
uSe．
TheTsukubaScienceCityareawasalsoconsideredbecauseofthegreater
availabilityoflandandtheproximitytothem毎OrgOVernmentlaboratoriesconductingHTS
research・HoweverthegeneralfbelingamongtheparticipantsandMITIwasthatTokyo
WaSthepreftrredlocationbecauseofitsaccessibility，itsproximitytothebusinessomces
Ofmanyoftheparticipantsaswellastothegovemment，andbecauseProf二Tanakawa5
1ivinginTokyo．
ThelandsearchwassoIvedafterMITIwaLSabletosuccessfu11ypressureanother
OneOfitsregulatedutilitiestoleaSeSOmeOfitslandatanominalchargetoISTEC．MITI
PerSuadedTokyoGastoleaSethesiteofitsoldmanagers’dormitoryintheKotoWardat
thenortheastendofTokyo．Thiswouldbetheciteofthemainlaboratory．Asa
COmPrOmisewiththeNagoyacontingent，itwasagreedthatabranchofthelaboratory
WOuldbeestablishedattheFineCeramicCenter．Anditwasagreedthatthenrst
InternationalSuperconductingSympOSiumtobesponsoredbytheconsortiumwouldbe
heldinNagoyaattheendofAugust1988．
ItisalsotruethattimingactedinMITrsfhvor．Atthetimeofthesediscussions，
theintemational’’fbver”inHTCwasverymuchontherise．ChuandWuhadmadetheir
discoveryofl－2－3superconductorswithacriticaltemperatureofover90C，Withinayear
laterresearchersatJapan’sNationalInstituteofMetalsfbundBismuthcompounds
SuperCOnductingatlO8KandProf．Herrman’steamattheUniversityofArkansas
PrOVideddataonthaliumcompoundswithacriticaltemperatureof120C．Therewasno
indicationthatthetemperatureswouldnotcontinuetorise，Zmdtheeventualgoalofroom
temperaturesuperconductivitywasverymuchalive．Asmentionedeadier，Nomura
ResearchInstitutebaseditsmafketprQjectionsontheassumptionoffindingaroom
temperaturesuperconductingmaterialwithin50rlOyears．Manyobserversfbelthat
Subsidenceoftheftversoonanerwouldhavemadethisconsortiaimpossibleayearlater．
Inaddition，Pro［TanakawasretiringfiomtheUniversityofTokyo・Mandatory
retirementoccursattheageof60inJapan’spublicuniversities，andProf二Tanakawas
SCheduledtoretireinMarchofl988・Perfbcttimingfbrtheopeningofthenewcenter・
肩97－
ThusMITIhadthewaveofoptimisticprqjectionstorideuponaswellasthenameofthe
nation’spreeminentresearcherinthisnewtechnology・
Thuswithacombinationof44fu11－SuPpOrtand44regularmembersthe
IntemationalSuperconductivityTeclm0logyCenter（ISTEC）wasfbundedagreatdealof
fhnfhreonJanuary21，1988．Approximately600peopleattendedtheopeningpartywhich
WaSbilledat12millionyen，includingtheViceChairmanofKeidanren，HiraiwaGaishi，
thePresidentofHitachiLtd．，MitaKatsuhiro，andthePresidentofSumitomoElectriC，
KawakamiTetsuro．TheadministrativeomcewasopenedindowntownTokyoanda
groundbreakingceremonywasconductedontheKotoWard，Shinonomesitetobegin
COnStruCtionoftheldboratory．
AstheNagoyabranchwasabletouseexistingspaceintheFCC，itwaSableto
beginoperationratherquickly，OnJuly8，1988，1essthanamonthafterthebranchheadwa5
recmited．ConstructionofthemainlaboratoryatShinonomemeanwhilecontinuedthrough
thesummer，throughthe’bbon”holidays，andwasnnallycompletedinthefhll，Withthe
OpeningoftheSuperconductivityResearchhboratory（SRL）heldonOctober25，1988．
Bythetimeoftheopening，anadditional17regularmembershadjoined，bringingthetotal
to60．Thusoneawakened，MITIshowedthatitcouldstillnexitsmusclewithindustry．
77は．VfJl雨／丁可J・、f′?′バピ
Astheabovediscussiondescribes，importantfhctorwhichdrovetheprogram
StrategiestakenbySTAandMITIwasthe16monthwaitingperiodbefbresignincant
PublicfundscouldbedirectedtoHTSresearchinApri11988．Withthepartialexceptionof
theMinistryofEducation，nOneOftheMinistriesorAgenciesintheJapanesegovemment
hasasystemfbrthelarge－SCaleemergencyfundingofnewscientincdiscoveries．
Therefbretheymustappealfbradditionalfunds丘omtheMinistryofFinanceandthe
MillistryofFinancehashadlittlesympathyfbrpleasofunanticipatedbudgetexpansion．
Since1982theMinistryofFinance’stoppri0rityhaSbeentoreducethespending
dencittozero，andthentoreducethenationaldebt，Whichat53％ofGNPinl989isis
aboutthesz汀nerelativesizeasthatoftheUnitedStates．Thispri0rityhasputasharpedge
Ontheirbudgetscalpels，withscienceandtechnologynobetterprotectedthananyother
areaofgovemmentservice．
MOFdeterminesanoverallspendingceilingforeachofthebureaucraciesanditis
uptothebureaucraciestostaywithinitsallocation．Howthefundsareallocatedare
usuallyleftlargelytothediscretionofthebureaucracies．MOFisnotstafftdwithscience
ー98－
Orengineeringgraduateswhowouldbeabletochallengetheteclmicalsubstznceofa
PrOgram，andseldomdoes．
InterviewswithindividualswhowereresponsiblefbrbudgetingintheMinistIyOf
Financeatthetime，indicatedthattherewaslittleexcitementinMOFoverhightemperature
SuPerCOnductivity．Tbegenerallyunifbrmresponseamongtheseindividualswasthatthere
aremanyitemsonthebudgetlistaboutwhichtheymustbeconcemed，with
SuPerCOnductivitybeingonlyone．TheMOFismoreconcemedaboutcontrollingthe
OVerallsizeofthebudgetandcheckingfbrwasteorredundancy，andlessinterestedinor
dbletoevaluatetheteclmicalpotentialofprqiectsinsdenceandteclm0logy．Thetechnical
decisionsarelefttotheministriesandagenciestoworkoutwithinandbetweenthemselves．
However，thisalsomeansMOFbureaucratsarenotparticularlyinclinedtofhvor
developmentsinscienceandtechnologybecauseOfaninherentappreciationofthe
enterprise．IfMITIorSTAwantedtofundaHTSprograminFY1987，theywouldhave
tocutotherprograms，PrOgramSWhosebudgetswereseta5areSultoftheirintra－agenCy
historyofyear－1ongnegotiations．Change，WOuldbeverydimcult．
TheFunding Process
SothemostpracticaloptionfbrMITIandSTAwaStOabidebythenormalbudget
PrOCeSS．TheconnrmationofHTSthusoccurredataveryuntimelypointinthebudget
CyCle．
BetweenJanuaryandJune，thebureaucraciesengagedintheplanningoftheir
researchprograms．Althoughthedetailsarediffとrentbetweentheministries，theprocessis
fundamentallythesame．Thesectionwhichwouldliketopromotesuperconductivity
drawsupaplanandwhiledoingsonegotiateswiththeappropriatetechnologyplanning
SeCtiontodennethelevelofpossiblecommitment．Sincegrowthintheoverallbudgetis
minimal，trade－Offkhavetobemadeandfundstakenh・OmOtheractivities．The
negotiationsarelong，Whichexplainsthedimcultyinstartingnewprogramsquickly．
BetweenJuneandtheendofAugust，COTltaCtwithMOFincreaSeSaSthe
bureaucraciesthennttheirhopestothebudgetguidanceprovided．Thebudgetand
PrOgIamplanproposedhasthusatleastinfbrmallypassedallmajordecisior1－making
hurdles．The’’nemawashi”resultsinaproposalthatwi11closelyresembletheapproved
plan．
ItisinthisstageofnemawashithattheinnuenceoftheDietmembers，ifthereisto
beone，ismostlikelytobehelpfu1．SincetherearenoformalhearingswhichallowDiet
memberstopresstheiropinions，theydosoininfbrmalvisitstoMOF．ManagingDirector
－99－
OftheSuperCOnductivityRenmei，TakashiTawara，nOtedthathevisitedtheMinistryof
Financeseveraldmesduringthespringof1987toencouragetheirnnancialsupportof
SuperCOnductivity・Veryimportanttohisinnuence，henoted，isthepoliticalstandingofthe
membersoftheRenmei．Thegreaterthestanding，themored）idingMOFwillbe，atleaSt
OStenSiblybecausetheDiethasthennalworkontheuseofthebudgetoverall，andcan
CreateheadachesfbrMOFiftheyhaveareasontodoso．
ItisalsowellknownthatDietmembersareinnuentialintheamakudaripostsof
descendingMOFomcialS，SOthemoreinnuentialtheDietmember，thelessthatsenior
MOFbureaucratsarelikelytowanttorufnehisfur．
InadditiontoKqjiyamaandTawara，membersoftheRenmeiaresummarizedin
Table3．9alongwithsomeof－thepoststhattheyhaveheld．
InadditiontotheindividualslistedintheTal）le，therewereeightChiefSecretaries．
Amongthese，nVeWerePadiamentaryViceMinistersofMITI．80
Evidence，however，OfdirectinnuenceonthesuperCOnductivitybudgetfbrming
PrOCeSSisunclear．IniTlterViewswithindividualsatMOFwhowereatthetimeincharge
OftheMITIbudgetsection，theSTAbudgetsectionandtheMOEbudgetsection，itwas
StrOnglyassertedthatpoliticalpressurefbrabudgetincreaSeWaSnOtimportantinthecぉe
OfHTS．Inal1casestheseindividualshadonlyvaguerecollectionofDietmembervisitsto
talkaboutthisandotherscienceandteclm0logyissues．Al1assertedthatnospecial
allocationsweremadetoaccommodateHTS．Infhct，eaChoftheseMOFindividualshad
Onlyvaguerecollectionthatsuperconductivitywasanimportanteventatthattime（twoand
ahalfyearshadelapsedbetweenthisbudgetperiodandthetimeoftheinterviews．）Instead
theyemphasizedtheirneedtoexaminethousandsorbudgetitemsforthebureaucracywith
Whichtheyarecharged，andthepri0rityinkeepingtheoverallngurewithintheMOF
budgetceilings．
Soapictureemergeswiththeresearchsupportingorganizationssettingtheir
agendasthroughinhousebargaining，OfaMOFwhichmaintainsatightnstonthetotal
amountofmoneyused，andofaDietwhichlufksinthebackgroundbutisoflittledirect
COnSequenCe・
80TheseChiefSecretariesincludeHideoWatanabe，MichihikoShikano，ShozoHarada，Moto
Shina，KaoruYosano，ShinjiSato，lsaoMaeda，andKanzoTanigawa．
－100－
Table3．9
Chairman
Advisor
Vice
Chairmen
SuperCOnductivityFederationMemtKrShipList
SeirokuK毎iyama
MichioWatanabe
MikioOkuda
HikosaburoOkonogi
YoshiroHayashi
HiroyukiMasuoka
K輔iroMun血
KozoWatanabe
ShigeruKasuya
TakeshiNoda
ChairmanoftheLowerHouseCommitteeon
CommerceandIndustry，HomeMinister，and
Deputy－SecretaryGeneral，LDP．
MinisterofFinance，MinisterofMITI，
MinisterofMAFF
DirectoroftheCommitteeonCommerceand
Industry
MinisterofMITIandDeputySecretary－
GeneraloftheLDP
MinisterofHealthandWelfhre，
PadiamentaryViceMinisterofFinance
DeputySecretary－General，LDP，Minister
OfHealthandWelfhre，ViceMinisterof
Tmnspod
DeputySecretary－General，LDP，Minister
ofMITI
ParliamerltaryViceMinisterofPostsand
Telecommunications，Chairmanofthe
LowerHouseCommitteeon
Communications
DeputySecretary－General，LDP，Chaiman
oftheLowerHouseCommitteeon
Commerceandhdustry
DeputyChairrnan，I．DPPolicyResearch
Council，ParliamentaryViceMinisterofMITI
ー101－
Coordination
Finallythereistheissueofcoordination・Withseveralbureaucraciesmoving
fbrwardtopromoteresearchinHTSandwitheachpetitioningMOFfbrfundstosupport
itsplans，Onemightanticipatearolefbrscient沌candnnancialcoordinatingbodies．
AlthoughSTAhasaIlOminalcoordinatingfunctioninthearenaofscienfi丘cactivity，there
isinpracticelittlesuchrolefbrittoplay．
Formal1y，thebehaviorofthefundingorganiZationswouldseemtoconnrm
ObservationsofgeneralJapanesebureaucraticbehaviormadebyanumberofscholars，With
eachappeanngtoactlargelyindependentlyoftheotherindrawingupitsplans，WOrkingto
maximizeitsrelativepositiorl．However，thiscompetitionitselfbringsacertainamountof
coordination，andtheroutesofinter－bureaucraticCommunication，Whilenotfbrmal，did
allowfbrahighdegreeofinfbrmationnow．
Althoughthebureaucratsfhceorganizationalbarrierstofbrmalinter－agenCy
exchanges，prOfbssorsdonot．InthecaseofascientinctopicsuchasHTS，eaChministry
fbrmsascientinccommitteeofproftssorsfbrscientincguidanceaswellasfbrlegitimacy
indealingwiththeMinistryofFinanceandwiththeprivatesector．Toheadtheirrespective
advisorycommittees，eaChclaimedadiffbrentprofbssor．Prof．Nak毎ima，retiredfiom
TokyoUniversityandnowatTokaiUniversity，COntinuedtochairtheactivitiesofthe
MOE；Prof．ShinrokuSaito，PreviouslyPresidentofTokyoInstituteofTechnologywas
recruitedbySTA；andProf．ShqjiTanakabecameMITrspnncipaladvisor．However，the
COmmunityofprofbssorsidentinesmorewiththesciencethanwithbureaucraticpolitics
andcorrmunicatesindependentlyofthebureaucraticpositioning．Thusthroughthe
minglingoftheacademics，eaChofthebureauczacieswaswellinfbmledoftheplansand
activitiesoftheother，andcoulddevelopstrategiestoemphasizediffbrentstrengthsand
avoidconnictinginareasinwhichtheywerelikelytoIose．
ThuswhenSTAleamedthatMITIwasplarmingtofbrmaresearchconsortiathat
WOuldbelocatedatasinglefhcilitytheyabandonedtheirinitialplantocreateasimilar
activity・WithMITrsfhrgreaterのilitytorecmitprivatesectorparticipation，STAknewits
POSitionwouldbeweakintryingtocompete．SoSTAtumedtotheMulti－Corestrategy．
Ovedapisguardedagainstthroughcompetitionratherthanpurposefu1planning．
Atagenera?evel，eaChministryleverageditsostensiblemissionanddejbcto
Strengths．ForMITI，themissionemphasizedwasitsroleinaidingindustry．Itsstrength
WaSinitsabilitytoworkwithindustryaJldinleveragingtheresourcesoftheindustry．
ForSTA，themissionemphasizedwasitsroleinpromotingareasoffrontierR＆Dandits
historyinbigscienceandteclm0logyprqiects．Asitdoesnothavethestrongindustrialties
－102－
thatMITIertioys，itemphasizeditsstrengthinitshboratories．OneSTAomcial
COmmentedthatwhileMITIsupportsitsprqjectstoadvanceindustry，inMulti－Core，STA
WaStakingastrategylnWhichtheindustrySupPOrtSthegovemmentlaboratoriesandthe
sclenCe．81
However，thelackofafbrmalcoordinatingbodymeansthateachbureaucracy
approachesMOFindependentlyforresearchfundsinthesamearea．Withahighpri0rity
Onbudgetcontrolonemightsuspectthatbudgetcoordinationwouldbeanimportantissue．
Withthfeebureaucraciespetitioningtodoresearchoncloselyrelatedifnotclearly
OVerlappingthemes，OneWOuldexpectcoordinatedscrutinytooccur．
Butthereisnofbrmalcoordination．Eachbudgetsectionismatchedtoaspecinc
ministryoragency，reSultinginaninsulatedbudgetstructure．Nofbrmaldiscussionsor
COmmitteesestablishedtoprovideacomprehensivereviewoftheresearchtheywere
funding・Instead，eaChbureaucracyisaskedhowitsprogramdifTbrsfromtheothers’，
withlittlechal1engetoareasonal）lerationalC．Regardirlgthetechnicalcontent，thetednical
bureaucraciesareseldomchallenged・MOFsetstheceilingfbrtheagencyorministryand
eachisexpectedtolivewithinitsmeans．
Conclusions
Thediscussioninthissectionrevealsthatfhr丘om”movirlgatthespeedoflight”in
takingtheleadinHTSresearch，thegovemmentbureaucracies，mOStnOtablyMITI，1agged
theresponseoftheprivatesectorinorganizingresearchprograms．Partofthereasonwas
becauseasgovemmentagencies，theyareboundbythefundingproceduressetbyMOF，
Whicharenotdesignedtoaccommodatenewdiscoveriesinscience．ForMITI，the
Slownesswasenhancedbythefhctthattheyhadtobeproddedintoactionbyinterestsin
theprivateandacademicsectors．
Onceinplace，however，thegovernmentprogramsfbrresearcharedesignedwith
theintentionofsustaininginvestmentinthisareafbranumberofyears，andaswewi11see
inthefbllowingsections，SuStainedinvestmentmaybefhrmoreimportantthanquick
action．
TheDietwasseentohavereactedratherpromptlytothediscoveryofHTS，by
fbrminganassociationfbrsupport，aRenmei．Howevertheinnuenceonpolicy－makirlg，
atleastinthiscase，aPPearSminor．Instead，theinterestmostservedmaybetheirownas
thesupportofacausethatindustryisinterestedinisclearlyhelpfulingainingpoliticaland
81lnterviewwithShizuoHoshiba，DirectoroftheOfficeofMateria．ScienceandTechnoIogy．
－103－
丘nancialsupport・Additionally，ShouldHTSrisetoroomtemperaturesinthenearfuture，
asmanythoughtlikelythen，itwouldhavehadam毎orimpactonnewcommercial
OPpOrtunitiesandonindustrialgrowth・Beinghbletosaythattheyweresupportersfiom
theuncerminoutsetwouldonlyenhancethelevelof坤PreCiationthattheycouldexhact
丘omindustry
Findly，WeSaWthatneithertheDietnorthescient捕cburcaucraciesplayedanyrole
incoordination．Theactualtechnicalcontentandlevelofcorrlmitmentwasle食tointraagencynegotiations，
Withintheoveral1capssetbyMOF．
胃104胃
VI・芸慧I呈RG豊㌫鑑鑑H篭君E吾禁崇聖
HavingreviewedthefbrmationofR＆DprqjectstopromoteHTS，WenOWmOVetO
thequestionsofhowtheseprogramsareorgamizedandwhatcontributiontheyhaveto
innovation．Intheanalysisoftheorganization，thequestionofprincipalinterestishowthe
interestsofthecollectiveaccommOdatetheinterestsoftheindividualparticipants．Are
COnnictsslgnincantintheseconsortia？Howaretheorganizationsaffbctedintheareasof－
Stamng，administration，andpatternsofparticipation？TheanalysisoftheorganiZationwill
thenbefbllowedbyananalysisof’thecontributiontoinnovation．Sincetheteclmical
outcomeoftheresearchisstilltoodistanttobeunderstoodthediscussionwillfbcusona
numberofprocesscharacteristics．Thesecharacteristicsincludethecontributiontothecore
SCience，diversincation，dimlSion，COmPlementaryassets，andtraining．
IwillbeginwithanintroductiontothetechnicalorganizationoftheISTECand
Multi－CorePrograms，discusssomeofthetensionsthatexistandtheresultingshapeof’the
Organization，andthenexamineoftheircontributionstoinnovation．
TheOrganizationofISTECandMulti－Core
ISTEC
ISTEC’Stechnicalgoalsareverygeneral：tOunderstand，advance，andtosome
extentdevelopteclm010giesinhightemperaturesuperCOnductivity．Therearenospecinc
technicaltargetsandnooverridingresearchtimetables，eXCePtfbrtheinitiallO－yearPeriod
fbrthecenter’splannedoperation．ThusitisratherunlikeotherMITIpromoted
COOPerativecenters，SuChastheVLSIlaboratory，ICOT，andtheKeyTeclm0logyCenters，
Whichhaveallhadtechnicalgoalsandschedulesagainstwhichprogresswasmeasured．
Asdescribedearlierinthischapter，unCertaintyaboutadvanceisthesalient
ChaTaCteristicofthisneld．Thereisuncertaintyaboutthefundamentalprocesseswhich
allowthisphenomena，unCertaintyaboutwhatpropertieswillleadtohighertemperatures，
anduncertaintyd）Outhoweasilythesematerialscanbeprocessedintousablefbrmsand
devices．ItistheseveryuncertaintiesthatenabledISTECtofbrmasnmlSWerebeing
recruitedtojoinwhentheonlythingthatseemedtobecertainwasthattheneldwas
advancingswinly．UnderstandingISTEC’sorganiZationandpossiblecontributionto
innovationthusbeginswithsomeunderstandingoftheteclmicalissuesitistryingto
address．Wetherefbrebeginwithatechnicalintroductiontotheprogram．
ー105胃
ISTECsSRLisdividedinto7rescarchdivisionsfocussingupondiffbrentresearch
themesasshowninTablelO．DivisionIischargedwithunderstandingthefundamental
physicsofsuperconductivityinnewmaterials・Heretheresearchersaretryingto
understandthebasicphenomenawhichprovidesfbrsuperCOnductivityinoxides，andto
searchfornewtooIstoenhancetheirpowersofcharacterization．Thefundamentalstudies
ofphysicalpropertiesemphasizefburthemes：1）crystal1inechemicalproperties，2）
electronicproperties，3）fluxoidproperties，and4）opticalandsurfhceelectronicproperties・
InpursuingnewcharacterizationtedlniquesresearchersareexaminingtheuseOfhigh
pressurephysics，pulseandspecincheatmeasurementtechniquesfordeterminingcritical
Currentandmagneticneld，magnet0－0Pticaltechniquesofobservingthenuxoid，and
Surfhcetunnelingspectroscopy．
TheDirectorofthisDivision，Dr．Koshizuka，COmmentedthatdevelopingnew
characterizationtechniquessuchasthoseaboveisahighpri0rityfbrhisgroup．82Hehas
noted，fbrexample，thatitisstillverydimculttomeasurethecriticalcurrentdensityofbulk
materials．Ingeneralthesearemeasuredmagnetical1yandindirectlycharacterized，nOt
measuredelectriCally．HealsonotedthatathighCriticalcurrents，meaSurementbecomes
extremelydimcultbecauseOftheheatthatisgenerated・
TablelO OrganizationofISTEC’sI．aboratories
SuperconductivityResearchbboratory
DivisionI
DivisionII
DivisionⅡI
DivisionIV
DivisionV
DivisionVI
FundamentalProperties
HighTemperatureSuperCOnductingOxides
OrganicSuperconductors
ChemicalProcessing
PhysicalProcessing（ThinFilms）
DabBases
NagoyaDivision High－CurrentSuperCOnductingOxides
82”LookingBackandLookjngForwardatSRL，一I⊆廷辿，VoL．2，No．4，1989．pp．8－9．
ー106－
DivisionIIfbcuseSOnthesearchfbrnewceramicsuperconductors．The
improvementsincriticaltemperaturemadeduring1986and1987weredramatic，butthere
isstillalongdistancetobecrossedinthequestfortheultimategoal：tO丘ndaworkd）le
materialapproachingroomtemperaturesuperCOnductivity・SoDivisionIIischargedwith
thetaskofsearchingfbrnewsuperconductingceramics，developmgnewHTSoxides，and
analyzing，CharacterizingandmodellingthematerialS．Thesearchfornewceramics
includescopperoxides，OXidesnotcontainingcopper，aSWellasotherceramicmaterialS．
Inanalyzingandcharacterizingthematerialstheresearchersarelookingatelectrical
resistivityandmagneticsusceptivityvs．temperature，HallandthemlOelectriceffbcts，and，
thecompositionandcrystallographicstructure．
DivisionⅡIwascreatedtoaddressanentirelydifTとrenttypeOfmaterialhas
exhibitedsuperconductivityatlowtemperatures：OrganicsuperCOnductors．Thesematerials
areevenlesswellunderstoodthanceramicsastheirmolecularstructuretendstobefhr
morecomplexthaneithermetalorceramicmaterials．Insomewaystheyrepresentaneld
Ordreamsfbrsuperconductivityresearchersbecauseorasensethattheirpotentialhasonly
beenscratchedtodate．83Prof．Tanakahasrenectedthisbeliefinthiscommentthatの．．．
hightemperaturesuperconductivityinorganicmaterialspresentsaveryunique
Phenomenon．IbelievethataunlquePhenomenonoccursonlyinaunlquematerial．”84
Researchinthisdivisionisaddressingthedevelopmentoforganicsuperconductors
andcharacteri2ationofthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofthesematerialS，includin
theircrystalstructure，tranSPOrtPrOperties，magneticproperties，Opticalproperties，isotope
effbcts，andchemicalproperties．
DivisionIVfbcusesonthethemeofchemicalprocessingwiththeworkdividedinto
roughlyfburgroups，dependinguponthestartingphaseof－thematerial：gaSeOuS，melting
Orliquid，Chemicalsolution，andsolid．TheheadofthisI）ivision，YuhShioharahas
COmmentedthattheirnrstthreeyearswouldbespentapplyingexistingchemicaland
materialfhbricationprocessestooxidestoseewhicharemostsuitable．Asthebest
methodsdependontheproduct，ShioharanotesthatavarietyofsuchtooIswillbe
necessary．Forexample，Withthinorthicknlms，CVDorsol－gelprocessingmaybe
appropriate，Whereasmeltprocessingorsolidphaseprocessingwouldbeusedwithbulk
Shapes．
83Earlyin1991，SuPerCOnductivitywasdiscoveredinapurecarbonmateriaI，Carbon60，Which
hastheshapeofaBuckminsterFuIIerGeodesicDome．AgroupatBeIILaboratoriesinitially
announcedachievingsuperconductivitywiththismaterialinApriTof1991，Withacr輔cal
temperatureof18K．inJuly，agrOUPatNECinJapanannouncedincreaslngthistemperatureto
33K．
84”LookingBackandLookingForwardatSRL：lE廷迦l，Vol．2．No．4，1989，P．11．
－107－
Bytheautumnof1989Shioharanotedthatallofhisgroupshadsucceededin
producingsuperconductorsintheas－grOWnState・Thisgroupshavemodinedthe
BridgmanMethodtoproduceBi－SyStemSpeCimenswithaTcof68K，theFloatingZone
processtoproduceaspecimenwithzeroresistanceat80K，MOVCDtoproduceYandBisystemswithaTcover80K，
andtheyhaveexperimentedwith02HⅣpowderprocessing
andsol－gelprocessing．
DivisionVisnominal1ycharteredwiththethemeofphysicalprocessing，butthe
primaryissueofconcemisthinnlmresearch・Theresearchisdividedintotwooverall
subthemes，thedevelopmentoffhbricationprocessesandtheprocessingof
superconductingoxidenlmsintousefu1forms・Thefhbricationprocessesfbcusonthin
nlmsandonadaptingsemiconductorprocessingtechnologyanddecreasingtheprocessing
temperature・Theprocessingofthenlmsintousefu1fbrmsincludesfundamentalstudieson
thephysicalpropertiesoftheinterfhcesbetweensuperCOnductingoxidesandother
materialS，forpossiblemultilayercapability，andexploitinglithographictechnlquesto
optimizetheconditionsfbrmillingofoxidenlmS・Theresearchersemployequipmentthat
includesalaserdepositionapparatus，amulti－SPutteringdevice，andareactiveevapo工ation
apparatusfbrmolecularbeamepitaxy（MBE）．
However，becauseofequipmentdelays，reSearChhasreallyonlybeenunderway
sinceJuneof1989．TheDivisionDirector，TadatakaMorishita，nOtedthatinadditionto
thefhcilitydelays，theyhavealsodevotedtimetoredesigningsomeoftheequiprnent
orderedtosuitanticipatedexperiments．85Forexample，mud10fthisequipmentwasnrst
developedfbrthesemiconductorindustry，inwhichanoxygen－freeerrvironmentwas
essential．However，hightemperaturesuperconductorsareoxides，andprocessingunder
higheroxygenenvironmentsappearstoleadtobetterperfbrmance・Sotheequipmenthad
toberevisedtooperateunderhighpressureoxygenenvironmentsratherthanoxygen一丘ee
VaCuumS．
DivisionVIhasbeenchargedwithdevelopingadatabasesystem，butasoflate
1990nofu11－timestaffhadbeenassignedandlittleprogresshadbeenmade．
Finally，theNagoyaDivisionwasgivenastheirmainthemehighcurrent
SuperCOnductors．Althoughthethemeallowsfbrabroadrangeofreseard，thenumberof
researcherswasinitiallylessthanhalfthatoftheothersections，6，SOtheDivisionDirector，
hmiHiIabayashinotedthattheydecideditwouldbemoreeffbctivetolimitthenumberof
topicsaddressed．86Themainthemeaddressedintheinitialmonthswasthestudyofbulk
85nLookingBackandLookingForwardatSRL”p．14．
86”AOne－yearPerspectiveontheNagoyaResearchDivision，SRL：1亘［亘⊆＿迦也VoI．2，N0．
3，1989．
ー108胃
Sinteredmaterials・87InJanuaryof1989threemoreresearchersjoinedthedivisionandthe
WOrkexpandedtoincludethestudyofhigh－SpeednlmfhbricationviaMOCVD．Thiswork
isbeingconductedincooperationwithsimilarresearchbeingcarriedoutinDivision4．
0thertopicsaddedtothescopeofworkatNagoyaincludelaserheatedzonemelting
PrOCeSSeS，thickfilmfhbrication，andfundamentalstudiesofthemechanismslimitingthe
Criticalcurrentsinoxidesuperconductors．Thevariablesthattheresearchershavefbcussed
Onincludethecharacterizationofrawmaterials，Sinteringbehavior，COntrOlofdirectional
Ordering，COntrOlofthegTainboundaries，introductionofpinningcenters，andtheuseof
COmpOSitematerials．
TheMulti－CoreProject
ForSTA，theMulti－CorePrqjectrepresentsaneworganizationalfbrmandnew
Organizationalchallenge．AlthoughmostofSTA’sR＆Dprogramshavebeenfbcussedon
directlysupportingresearchatitslaboratoriesorthroughitspublicfbundations，theagency
Showedin1981throughtheERATOprogram，thatitiscapableoforganizational
innovationstomeettheevolvingneedsofitsscienceandtechnologypolicypri0rities．
Multi－Corerepresentsasecondm互iororganiZationalinnovationasSTAisattemptingto
COmbinetheresourcesofitslaboratoriesandthoseofindustryonalargescaletoaddressa
newareaofscience．
LikeISTEC，theMulti－CoreP両ecthastheverygeneraloverallgoalofpromoting
baSicresearchinnewsuperconductingmaterialswhichwill”pavetheway”fbrtheir
PraCticalapplication．88Theprogramisplannedfbr5years，nSCalyearsl988－1992，with
STAprovidingthelaboratoryfhcilitieSwhichserveastheresearchcentersor”cores，”and
PrOVidingfundstoenhanceexistingequiprnentwiththeintentionofenablingthecoresto
COnductfiontierresearch．ThesecoresaretheheartoftheMulti－Coreprqiectwitheach
COrefbcussingaroundadiffbrentteclmicaltheme．Thecorearestaffbdwithresearchers
丘omthehostfhcility，Withthesefhcilitiesalsomadeavailabletoresearchers丘omother
PublicandprivatesectororganiZationswhosubmitproposalsfbrcollaborativeresearch．
TheoverallarrangementisshowngraphicallyinFigure24．
87　　ThefirstpatentappJiedforbythisDivision，forexampfe，invo－vedtheadditionofsilver
duringtheprocesslngOfal－2－3La－SyStemSuPerCOnductor．ThesiIverwasfoundtoaccelerate
JiquidphasesinterJngandtherebyimproveboththec而icaItemperatureandcurrentofthe
SUPerCOnductor．
88scienceandTechnologyAgency∵Mul廿coreResearchProjectonSuperconductivity：，
Tokyo‥ScienceandTechnologyAgency，1988・
l‥109　－－－
MULTトCORE PROGRAMPROGRAM
ORGANtZATlON
Figure24　　SchematicoftheOrganizationoftheMulti－CoreProgram
Theprimaryincentiveso恥redbytheprogramarel）theexpertiseavailableateach
coreand2）theld）OratOryfhcilit主esforcooperativeresearch．UnlikeISTECwhereoneof
theimportantinitialstepswasthedevelopmentofanexpertiseinthisareaamongstafr
dispatchedbythemembernrms，theSTAlaboratoriesadvertiseanexpertisethatalready
exists．FornmlSWithamoredennedtechnicalinterestandwithagoodmatchwithoneof
STA’scores，theMulti－CorePrqiectcanbeamoredirectwayofnllingtheirneeds．
Inadditiontoitsexpertise，eaChcoreadvertisesitsfhcilitiesasbeingavailableto
researchcooperatOrS．IfthefhcilitiesareparticularlyuniqueorexpenSivetoacquire，their
avaihbilityatthecorelaboratorycanprovideamqjorincentivefbrcollaboration．Thiscarl
beparticularlyattractivefbruniversityprofbssorsandsmal1nrms．Evenifanrmhasmade
theinvestmentinanadvancedpieceofequipment，itmaystillwanttOimprovetheskillsof
itsstaffinanalyzingmaterialssuchassuperconductors．ThecorescanthusPrOVidea
usefu1trainingandresearchresource．Inbothinstancesofaccessingexpertiseand
accessingfhcilities，thepotentialbenemtotheparticipatingorganiZationcanbemoreclearly
dennedthaninthec鮎eOfmultilaterallycooperativeprogrzunssuchasISTEC．
BySTA’sdennition，thesethemesaredividedintothreegeneralareas：1）
PrOCeSSing，2）characterization，and3）theoryanddatabase．Sevenofthecentersare
CategOrizedasprocessirlg，nVeaSCharacterization，andoneastheory．Theprocessing
CategOryincludesthethemesNewSuperconductors，ComponentPurincation，ThinFilm，
SingieCrystal，Lithography，BasicConductor，andSpaceEnvironment．The
ー110－
CharacteriZationcategorycomprisesthethemesHigh－FieldProperties，CrystalStructures，
ChemicalCompositions，RadiationEfficts，andPhysicalandChemicalAnalysis・Finally，
theTheoryandDataBa光aCtivitieseachhavetheirowncore・hterwewillanalyzehow
thesecorethemes，theirfhcilities，andcooperativeresearchactividesntintoinnovationin
thisneld．
ThetechnicalthemesfbreachofthesecorearesummarizedinTablell．
Thementionofpracticalapplicationinthemissionstatementoftheprqjectalong
withthelargerrumberofprocessingcoresandthelackofacategorymoreclearlyindicating
fhndamentalmaterialsresearchhasledsomeobserverstotheimpressionthattheJapanese
areagainplottingtocapturethebenentsofintemationalbasicresearchbytargeting
PrOCeSSingandapplications，neglectingtaskscentraltotheneldsuchasthesearchfbrnew
materialcompositions．89Howeverexaminationofthecontentofeachofthecoresshows
thisnottobethecase．Thenvecenterswhichfhllundertheheading”characterization”are
eachdirectedtowardbasicstudiesofthematerialanditsbehaviorinalteredenvironments．
AnalysesofcrystalstructuresandchemiCalcompositionsisbeingpursuedthrougha
breadthoftooIsfbrbasicresearchsuchashighresolutionelectronmicroscopy，X－ray
difThction，ion－SCatteringspectroscopy，andmuonresonancespectroscopy．Underthe
headingofBasicConductorisacoredirectedtowardthe”explorationofnew
SuPerCOnductors”inwhichresearchersareusingbothsolidstateandliqui的a5reaCtionStO
SynthesizenewmaterialS．Dr．Maedahasnotedthatalthoughhisactivitiesareostensibly
directedtowardprocessingteclmiques，theyhavealsoexperimentedwithnewmaterial
COmPOSitionsashavemanyoftheotherprocessingcores．Hisfbelingwasthatthe
distinctionbetweenprocesslngandfundamentalstudiesisnotadistinctoneatthisstagein
thedevelopmerltOfthismaterial．90
TheIncentives
TheorganizationoftheSRIJandtheMulti－CoreProgramarethusbasedongeneral
researchthemes，andhavebeencreatedwiththeintentionofbeingoperatedascommon
researchfhcilities．Howevertheparticipantscomewithavarietyofinterestswhichare
89MichaeZCrovv，・Techn0－ogydeve－opmentinJapanandtheUnitedStates＝．eSSOnSfromthe
high－temPeratureSUPerCOnductivityrace，”塾；垣幽艶必也＿塵蟄旦壁，Vol．16，No．6，December
lg89；OrB．R．lnrTlanandDanieJF．Burton．TechnologyandCompetitiveness：TheNewPolicy
Frontier：長軸飽垣，Spring1990；JapanTechnologyEvaluationCenter，逆EL巳旦郎釦
旦山］j虫ユ旦幽旦j辿匹些！坦虫虚麺吐出」星担凸，Washington：NTlS，November198g，P．Xi．
90JnterviewwithDr．Maeda，NationalResearchlnstituteforMetals
－111－
Tablell Multi－CorePrQjectResearchThemes
Category Multi－CoreTheme HostLaboratory
TheoryaJldDataBase
Processlng
CharacteriZation
Theory
DataBaSe
NewSuperconducting
Matedds
MaterialComposition
ThnFilm
SingleCrystal
Lithography
BasicConductor
Space
HighField
CrystalStructure
ChemicalComposition
Radiation
PhysicalandChemical
NRm
Vadous
NIREu
A
D
舶
N
WW脚胴脂
1ikelytoaffbctthefbrmoftheorganizationanditsabilitytoachievecommunicationand
COOpCration．
Inbrief，themostsignincanttensionintheorganizationofthecollectiveactivityis
thetensionbetweenthedesireofthenrmsto…坦匹地盤developmentsandthedesireof
thecoHectiveto並垣堕蔓infbfmation．
ISTEC’sandMulti－Core’sgoalS，emphasizethecollectiveadvanceofthescience
andteclm010gyofsuperconductivityfbrthegeneralbenentofscience，industryand
SOCiety．Inanidealsense，then，theactivitiesof－theprogramsarenottoappropriatetheir
researchresults，buttodimlSetheirdevelopmentsfbrthegeneralgood．Bycontrast，the
goaisoftheparticipantsaremuchmorevaried，aLndtotheextentthattheparticipantsexpeCt
tobenentfromcommercialexploitation，thegoalsarefbcussedonappropriationratherthan
diffusion．FirmscanbeexpeCtedtoviefbrtheirbestpositionintheconsortia．
ー112－
Thus，forexample，fbrnrmSSeekingtoadvancetheircoremarkets，theincentive
WOuldbetoparticipateinthatpartofthecenterwhichaddressesthemostrelevant
teclm010giesortechnicalbarriers・Formaterialssuppliers，WeWOuldexpectabiastoward
fundamentalperfbrmanceimprovementsthroughcompositionorprocessing．Fordevice
manufhcturerswewouldexpeCtaninterestinpr∝eSSingrelatedcloselytothebarriersto
therealizationofthedevice・Forsystemsusers，integrationandprototypetestingmightbe
expectedtobeofprimaryinterest．
ForISTEC，theorganizationalchallengesaremoresevereasthecenteristryingto
gaincooperationamongdiverseandsometimescompetinginterests．Thecenteraimsat
truecooperation．Bycontrast，aLSnrmSinMulti－Coreengageinbilateralagreementswith
thecoreofinterest，thepotentialfbrconflictbetweentheparticipantsorwiththecollective
ismuchreduced．UnlikethecollectivearrangementinISTEC，eaChnrminMulti－Core
arrangesabilateralagreementwiththecorelaboratoryaLnddoesnotrelyonthesuccessor
evenparticipationofothernrms．Althoughthismeansthatthenrmswi11nothave
WhatevercollectiveleamingandbIainstormingbenentsthatmightariseinalargercollective
fhcility，thereisagreaterchancethattheadvancesmightbeappropriatedfbrsometimeand
thattheresearchwillstayclosertothenrm’sinterests．Thedisincentivesassociatedwith
undesiredleakageofadvancesmadebyanrm’sresearcher，Oraboutthetechnicalinterests
Orlevelofadvancementofthenrm，arethusreduced．
Forexample，Sinceinsulationfromdirectexposuretocompetitiveinterestsreduces
thedisincentivestocooperation，WeWOuldexpectlessconflictbetweenresourcerichand
resourcepoornrms，Orbetweenexperiencedandinexperiencednrms．Tothecontrary，We
WOuldexpecttoseebothgroupsparticipating．Theparticipationoflargerorexperienced
nrmswouldconnrmthattrulystate－Oflthe－artWOrkisunderwaywhichisofinterestto
丘ontierresearchteams．Thepresenceofsmallnrmswouldbeexpectedandwouldindicate
theprogram’saccessibilityandwouldbeasignoftheprogram’scontributiontothe
diffusionofresearchactivityinthisarea．91Wewouldexpectnrmstobemoreinterestedin
91However，aSreSearChersfromthevariousfirrnsare．ikelytornIng，einthesamelaboratory，itmay
betruethat asuccessfuJmeasureofactivityfortheco?ectivemayreducetheincentiveof
individualfirmstoparticipate・AIargenumberofindustrialparticipantsintheprogramappearsto
beoneofthemeasuresofsuccessforSTA，indicatingtheimportanceandrelevanCeOfthe
PrOgram’sresearch・MOFlikestoseealargenumberofotherorganizationsareparticipating，
Sharingtheburdenofresearch，WithindustrialparticipantsbeingparticuIarlyattractiveasthey
indicatecommercialrelevanceintheactivity・AsthenumberinqreaSeS・however，SOdothe
OPPOrtunitiesforcontactswithresearchersfromotherIaborator．es・Eventhoughthebenchwork
maybeseparate，SOmetranSferofknowfedgeislikelytooccur．Totheextentthattheworkis
SharedintheopenliteratureandisstiHviewedapositivesumactivitythroughthesharingofideas，
thebenefitswilloutweighthepenaItiesandtheincentivessuppoT・tParticipation・Thiswouldbe
expectedtobemorethecaseforfundamentalresearch．Totheextentthattheworkhas
－113胃
thecoreswithexpertisethataremorerelevanttocommercialendsthaninthebasicresearch
core，andwewouldexpecttheoppositewithuniversityprofbssors．
Ananalysisoforganizationalpattemsofparticipationwillillustratediffbrences
betweenacollectivesysteminwhichparticipationmoredirectlyrenectstheprimary
interestsofthenrms．Areasinwhichtheinteractionbetweentheincentivesofthenrms
andtheshapeofthecollectivewillbeex別ninedincludestafnng，administration，industrial
Clustering，andsegregationbytechnicalinterest．
Starfing
Ifcachnrmistryingtomaximizeitsbenentandminimizeitscost，thenonewould
expectsometendencyto丘eeride：tOSendlessqualinedresearchers．Thishasbeena
mqjorproblemwithconsortiafbrmedinboththeUnitedStatesandEurope．Forthe
COllectivethisproblemcanleadtodisaster，fbrifonenrmthinksthisway，theotherare
likelytothinkthiswayaswellandadownwardspiralcouldresultinunifbrmmediocrity．
WhenorganizingtheMicroelectronicsComputerCorporation（MCC），AdmiralBobby
InmaninsistedonscreeningalloftheresearchersnominatedbythesupportingnrmS，and
initial1yrdected95％ofthecandidates．92　WhenorganizingtheVLSIresearchlaboratory，
SakakibamhasnotedthattheI，aboratoryDirector，YasuoTarui，directlyselectedmanyof
theresearchersthatparticipatedratherthanabidebycompanynominations．93Isthere
evidencethatISTECwasabletoavoidthisproblem？
InthecaseofISTEC，thecompanieshavetherighttodecidewhotheywantto
Send．However，Dr．Tanakanotedthatthiswasoftendoneinconsultationtotryto
general1ymatchISTECneeds．Mr．Ishiguro，headofthePlanningSectionanddispatched
fromMITI，mOrefbrcefu11yassertsthathewascarefulinscreeningeachoftheapplicants
toassuretheirquality．
Whatdoestheevidenceshowofstaffquality？InJapan，theeducationalsystemis
markedbyaIatherclearhierarchyofschooIs．UnliketheUnitedStateswherethereare
largeclustersofschooIsconsiderednrst－rate，therankingismorediscreetinJapan．Thus
atthetopoftheheaparethenationaluniversitiesledbyTokyoUniversity，Kyoto
advantagesinappropriation，however，thegreaternumberofparticipantsmaydiscouragethe
moreadvancedfirms†romjOlnIng．ThisrnaybethecaseinthemoreappIiedresearchactiv托ies．
92Bobbylnman，uCo?aborativeResearchandDevelopment：⊆旦墜竺p生血盛運裏迎
＝旦！土地StewardNozetteandRobertKuhneds．，NewYork：Praeger，1987，PP．63－67．
93KiyonoriSakakibara，OP・CR．
－114肩
ISTEC－1lI三SEARCtTERM＾TRICUL∧TION（59／銅）
－－－切　－
SArrAMAUNIV．
N∧GAOX＾1NST．TIiCl－1．
WASED∧UNIV
NAGOY＾1NST．TECH．
TOKY01NST．TECH．
I13AR＾KIUNIV．
KYUSHUUNIV．
NAGOY∧UNIV．
KYOTOUNIV．
TOHOKUUNIV．
OS∧K人UNIV．
UNIV．OFTOKYO
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ロ望reいい　　Ma－計ul註OnOコST田C声esearchea
University，OsakaUniversity，andinengineering，TohokuUmiversity．Ofsimilarranking
isonenationalteclmicalinstitutes，theTokyoInstituteofTechnology，Withothersbeingof
lowerprestigebutstillconsideredsolidschooIs，SuChastheKanaawaInstituteof－
Teclm010gyandtheNagoyaInstituteofTechnology．Closebehindarethetopprivate
SChooIs，ledbyKeioandWasedaUniversities．Minorrepresentationbygraduatesofthese
schooIswouldbeanindicationofsomeweaknessinstaffl
Figure25showstheschooIswhosegraduatesaremostprominentlyrepresented
withintheISTEClhboratory．Theuniversitymostprominentlyrepresentedisthe
UniversityofTokyowith14graduates．ThisiscloselyfbllowedbyOsakaUniversitywith
12graduates，andthenbyTohokuUniversity，7graduates，KyotoUniverslty，6graduates，
andNagoyaUniversity4graduates．Ofthe81researchersinthelaboratory，50，Or60％
areeitherfromtopnationaluniversitiesortopprivateuniversities，SuPPOrtingthe
COnClusionthatDr．Tanakahasmanagedtorecruitaresearchstaffofratherhighquality．A
long－termVisitingscientisttothelaboratoryfbrmtheLosAlamosNationalLaboratoryin
NewMexico，JeffbryWillis，alsomadethecommentthatthestaff，OVerall，WaSfirstrate．94
Howwasthisaccomplished？Thereasonsdistilledfiominterviewsappearseveralfbld．
FirstthereistheattractionandreputationofProf．Tanakaasthenation’sleading
researchngureinHTS，anunuSualblessingfbraconsortiaprQject．Prof．Tanaka’s
retirementfiomtheUniversityjustasthecenterwasopeningwasextremelyfbrtuitous．
Second，manyOftheparticipatingnrmsareconsideredthe’rbest”nrmsinthenationandso
areabletohiregraduates丘omthebestuniversities．Thedispatchedresearchersarenot
likelytobeamongthefbwsuchresearchersinthenms・Third，thereistrainingfunction
infundamentalresearchofthisexercise．Unlikedevelopmentorsystemsorientedprqjects，
aprincipalgaintothenrmswillbeintheenhancedbasicresearchskillsoftheresearcher，
hencereducingtheskillofthedispatchedresearcherdirectlyreducestheretumtothe
COmPany・
Finally，thereisthe”shame”efTbctthatcompanieso丘enreftrto．If’0thernrmsare
makingasubstantivecommitmenttoacollaborativeendeavor，thesocialstigmaattachedto
appearingtobea丘eeriderwasoftenimpliedasapressuretomaintainsomestandard．
βrdW dCb
Oneofthedrzrwbackstotherelianceondispatchedresearchersisthatatsomepoint，
thecompanieswouldliketheirresearchersback．Atypicalrotationtothe
94－nterviewwithJefferyWillis，Ju．y3，1991・
胃116－
SuperconductivityResearchhboratorywouldbebetweentwoandthreeyears．Afterthis
pointthecompaniestendtofielthattheirresearchershavereceivedadequatetrainingand
theywouldlikethemtocontributetheirtrainingtothenrm，sresearch・ForISTEC，
however，itisatthispointthattheresearcherscanbegintomakesignificantindividual
COntributionstothescienceand，aSthepursuitof－fundamentalscienceisalong－term
PrOCeSS，PerSOnnelrotationseverytwotothreeyearsaredisruptive．Justasthehboratory
fhllyrunnmgandthepeopletrained，theperiodfbrrotationswillcomeup，requiringthe
directoIStOStartallover．
ThisspecteroflossisevenmoresignincantwhenonerecallsthatSRLwaslargely
StaffbdoveraperiodofsixmonthS．Inashortperiodoftimethereispotentialfbrm互ior
PerSOrmelrotationleavinglittleoverlapofthenrstgenerationstaffwiththesecond．
ISTEChasanticipatedthisandisworkingtostaggeranddelayrotationstothe
extentpossible，butstrengthinthisnegotiationwillrequirethebackupof’MITI．
Leng－termCOntinuationrequiresthattheresearchersdolargelyretumtotheirhome
nrms，aSdefbctionswouldmakenrmsincreasinglyapprehensiveaboutsendinggood
researcherswhomightmoveon・ThisisastrongdisincentivefhcedbynrmsintheUnited
States・Asofthemiddleof1991，afbwsuchdefbctioTIShavebeenreported，with
researcherslargelyretumingtothelaboratories丘omwhichtheycame．
AdministrativerLeutrality－Administrativestability
Ifnrmssuspectothernrmsarevyingtoappropriateormaneuverthemselvesintoa
fhvoredposition，thenthequestionofwholeadsbecomesastrategicissue．Doesitgoto
thememberwhichisclearlystrongestwiththeassumptionthatthefewi11bemoreto
COntributefromtheirin－houseinsights？Doesitrotate？Ordotheyneedtorecruit
extemally？
Fortheostensiblepurposeofmaintainingneutralityinthemanagementofresearch
inISTEC，theDivisiondirectorswereallrecruitedffomneutralorganizations．Managersat
ISTECarequicktonotethatthiselementofneutralityisconsiderakeyfhctorfbr
SuCCeSSfuloperation．ThedirectorofDivisionl，NaokiKoshizuka，WaSreCmitedffom
MITI’sElectrotechnicallaboratory．HisaoYamauchi，OfDivision2，WaSreCruitedback
丘omCanadawherehewasonstafrattheUniversityofWindsor．YuhShiohara，thehead
OfDivision4，WaSluredback丘omthispositionasanAssociateProfbssoratMIT．
TadatakaMorishita，theheadofDivision5，CameOVerfh3mtheresearchstaffofNHK，s
ScienceandTechnicalResearchLAboratory，andYoshihisaIshiguro，theheadofthe
－117－
Table12．　InitialDivisionDirectorsinISTEC
Division Name PriorAmliation
Divisionl
Division2
Division3
Division4
Division5
Division6
Nago3個
NaokiKoshizuka
HisaoYamauchi
（ShqiiTanaka）
YuhShiohara
TadatakaMorishita
YoshihisaIshiguro
hmiHi血判髄hi
ETL－MITI
UniversityofWindsor，Chnada
M．I．T．，U．S．A．
NHK
Mm
MaxPlankResearchInstitute，
Germany
PlanningSectionandnominalheadorDivision6wasdispatched丘omMITI．Finally，
IzumiHirabayashi，theDirectoroftheNagoyaDivision，WaSreCruitedwhileconducting
researchattheMaxPlankResearchInstitute．Thesepastamliationsaresummarizedin
Td）1e12．WiththeexceptionoftheMITImember，thekeytotheselectionofthese
individualswastheirconnectiontoProf二Tanaka．
Asthisislargelyafundamentalresearcheffbrt，however，itisnotclearhowcritical
aretheneutralorganizationamliationsfbremcientdirectionoftheresearch．Morethanthe
ftarofbiasingthedirectionsoftheresearch，Whichinanycasearesetinconsultationswith
Othermembersofthelaboratory，theremaybeconcemoverthedangerofcrmtinginternrm
antagonismsshouldanydecisionshavetobemade．Ifonememberfbelsdisadvantagedas
theresultofanegotiation，itmayworkdirectlyagainstrelationswiththemediatingnrm．
Thereverseconsequencewouldbethattoavoidthistypeoffhction，themediatingnrm
representativewillavoidmakingdimcultdecisions．
MITI’searlierexperiencewiththeVLSIjointresearchlaboratoryinthelate－1970’s
highlightedtheimpodanceofthismediatingfunction．I）urirLgthelengthofthisprogram，
OneOftheprincipalcontributionsmadebytheManagingDirector，MaSatONebashi，an
amakudaribureaucrat丘omMITI，WaStOkeeprelationshipslubricated．Inaninterview
WithSakakibara，Nebashinotedthaピ’…AllIdidfbrthisfburyearswastodrinkwith
them（theresearchers）as丘equentlyasIcould．Iwantedtounderstandtheircomplaintson
thoseoccasionsandtriedtoeliminateproblems：り5ByworkingdailytodifnlSetenSions，
95sakakibara，OP・Cit・，P・23・
ー118－
Nebashiwasabletosignincantlymitigatethehighlevelsofmistrustwhichexistedatthe
PrOgramSOutSet，enablingtheprogramtofunctionmorelikeacollaborativeeffbrtafiera
COupleofyears．
AIsoimportantinthismanagementarrangement，however，isthedesirefor
COntinuity・Withthestaffrotatinginandouteverytwotothreeyears，theIjboratory
neededsomewaytoenhanceanaccumulationofknowledgeandtomitigatethenegative
innuencesoftheturn－OVerinitsstafflForexample，althoughlessthanSixmonthsinto
actualresearch，Dr．Yamauchi，nOtedhisconcemthatjustastheywillbegintomake
PrOgreSSintheirsearchfbrnewmaterialS，theresearcherswillbecalledbacktotheir
laboratories・96Someonehastoknowwhathasbeendonethusfhr，Whatapproacheshave
SuCCeededandfhiled，andwhatdirectionswereselectedandwhy．IftheI）irectorsarealso
dispatched丘omnrms，theywi11alsobesubjecttothispersonnelrotation，makingsuch
COntinuitydimcult・Usinglowerlevelresearchstaffasthesourceofmemorymayjust
leavetheminconstantbattlewiththeirDirectors．Thus，byrecruitingdirectorsasfu11time
Stafrfbrlongerperiods，Pe血apsthedurationoftheprogram，thiscontinuityisplacedinthe
individualswhohavethemostauthoritytobeabletousetheknowledge・
IndustrialClustering
Whereasthecollectivewouldliketheparticipantstopursueresearchbasedonthe
SCientincpri0rityofthequestionswithaneyetothelong－termadvanceoftheneld，the
firmSWOuldbeexpectedtobeinterestedintheactivitiesmostcriticaltocommercialiZation，
OrtOShoringuptheirscientincweaknesses．Thus，fbrexample，electronicsnrmswould
beexpectedtobeclusteredinDivision50fSRL，Whichisthinfllmresearch，OrtheThin
FilmorLithographyCoresoftheMulti－CoreProgram．Cd）1emanufhcturerswouldbe
expectedtobemoreinterestedinchemicalprocessingofbulkmaterialsandnlms（Division
4）andhighcurrentresearch（NagoyaDivision）ofSRLandMulti－Core’sBasicConductor
activity・ObserversintheJapanesepresshadpredictedthattherewouldbearushtothese
PrOCeSSingdivisionstotheneglectofmoretheoreticalorfundamentalresearch．97，98
96dLookingBackwardandLookingForwardatSRL：I亘旺旦迦嘘，VoL2，No．4，1987，P．10．
97一‘ChodendoKogakuKenkyujoniMekeruKigyonoNetsui，－op．cit．，P．13．
98　Afthoughingenera，，OneWOuldexpecttoseegreaterinterestintheprocessng－re．ated
SeCtionsthaninthemorefundamentaIresearchsections，thismightnotbetrueoffirmsthatfeeE
theirworkisalreadysubstantialinsuperconductiv吋．lnthiscase，theoppoTtunityfor
SOPhisticatedtheoreticaltrainingintheJaboratorymayproveamoreenticinglure．Thatis，the
morewe”staffedfirmsmightbefoundindisproportionatenurnberinthefundamentaJresearch
divisions，Divisionsland2atSRLandthetheory→Drientedacth／托icsoftheMulticoreProgram，
reflectingthisemphasisontraining．Unfortunatelytheident吋Ofspec汗icfirmswaswithheldso
thisanalysISWaSnOtPOSSible．
－119一
If；ontheotherhand，thescientincwofkwasreceivingpri0rity，thenonemight
expecttoseeadivisionbasedmoreondisciplines．
Firstindustrialclusteringwillbeexamined．
Figpre26showstherepresentationofindustrialsectorsineachoftheISTEC
divisions．ThengurerevealsthattheorganiZationismarkedmorebyindustrialdispersion
thanbythemalicclustering．Thecablemanufhcturers，fbrexampleareevenlyrepresented
inDivisionsl，2，4and5．Thecombinationofhomeelectronicsnrmsand
telecorrmunicationsnrmsisalsoratherevenlyrepresented，withaslightlyhigherweightin
thinnlmresearchandresearchofthephysics，butwithnorepresentationinthehighcurrent
WOrk．Representatives丘omtheutilitiesarealsodistributedthroughallsections，butagain
with1ittleinterestshowninorganicsorfundamentalmatedalS．
Somewhatmorepredictablearetheinterestofthechemicalnrmsinproperty
researchandprocessing，thepresenceofonlyonenrminDivision4whichischartered
Withtheorganicmaterialswofk，andaweakeroverallinterestinthebasicphysics．
Thelesspredictableclusteringoccurredintheconcentrationofcerzmicsnrmsinthe
Nagoyadivisionandtheproportionatelylargenumberofironandsteelrepresentativesin
thefundamentalphysicssection．Inbothcasesthephenomenaseemstobetheresultof
givingweighttotheindividualchoicesoftheresearcheIS．Inthelatter，theresearchers
dispatcheddesignatedtheoryastheirareaofinterest，andinthefbrmer，theparticipatiIlg
researdlerSWhohaveexpressedageognIhicalpreftrencetobeinNagoya．Sixofthenine
OrganizationsthatdispatchedresearcherstotheNagoyaarefromtheKinki（Nagoya）
region．Theseincludeindividuals丘om NGKSparkPlug，NGKInsulators，Toyota，and
ChubuElectriC．Further，anindependentresearcherrecruited丘omtheUniversityof
Tokyo，Dr．SetsukoT毎ima，WhoisfbrmallyinDivision3，hasselectedtheNagoyalabas
herhusbandisattheneafbyOkazhkiResearchIaboratory，directingthehightemperature
SuperCOnductivityresearchunderwaythere．
IntheMulti－CoreProgram，bycontrast，flrmsarefieetoselectthecoreinwhich
theyaremostinterested，andasaconsequencetheprefbrencefbrcommercialrelevanceis
moreclearlyseen．
UnlikeMITI’sISTECprQject，itwasnotnecessarytohaveaCriticalmassofnrms
toenabletheventure，thecorelaboratoriescanfullyoperateasindependentresearchentities
ー120－
ISTECDlVISIONALRESE＾RCHERP＾IulCIP＾T10NllYINDUSTRI＾LSl三CTOR
HlGll CURRENTS
PHYSICALPll0CESS
ーーN－－
CHEMTC＾LPROCESS
ORG∧NICM＾TERl＾LS
NEWMATERI＾LS
0　　　　2　　　4　　　　6　　　　8　　　10　　12　　14　　16　　18　　　20
NUMlll三ROFRlてSl三八】lCIIl三】lS
田NON＿ENTEllPlllSE
mpUl11－ICCO】11｝
目oTllERSECl、Oll
田UrlLr1－Y
EヨMOTORVl三川CLll
田S川PnUはDmG
田coNSUMEltELECT
mTELECOM
日Jlli＾VYELECT
回cAl）Ll三＆lVlllE
mNONFE11110US
虹1110N＆S・11三l三L
□cER∧MにS
肩C川三M＆GIJSS
句i望reNか　　IndCbt計－SectOrDist乱butiOn5．IST何CDi且siOnS
Figure27　　hdustrialSectorDistributioninMulti－CoreProgramCores
ChcmicalComp
2　　　　］　　　　4　　　　5
NunlbcrorFirnlS
6　　　　7　　　　　3　　　　　9　　　　10
Figure28　　ResearchSpecialitybyISTECDivision
HJGHCURRENT
PrlYSICALPROCESS
CHEMICALPROCESS
ORGANICMATmAIj
NEWMATERIALS
0　　　　2　　　　4　　　　6 8　　　10　　　12　　　14　　　16　　　18　　　20
NUMBEROFRESEARCHERS
－122一
E∃pR王CiSiONMACHiNERY
国M工SCELECmCMACHINE
田coNSUMERELECTRIC
匹］HEAVYELECTR工C
団sH汀BUIIJXNG
ⅢiNDUSTMALMACHINERY
E］NONFERROUS
E】spECI＾LTY STEEL
ⅢC∧DLE3月dlⅥRE
E】cEMENT
E］GLASSandCERAMIC
■MINiNG
ヨoTHER
匝iMECHAmCALENGR
T ELECTRICALENGR
酎cHEMISTRY
□MATEⅢAlj
＋pHYSICS
Withoutanyparticipationbyindustry・Firms，aSStreSSedbyanSTAomcial，Will
participatebecauseoftheattractivenessofthesciencebeingpromoted．
Figure27showsparticipationineachofthecoresdividedbyindustrialsector．
Twelvediffbrentsectorsarerepresentedinthevariouscorcsoftheprogram・Thelargest
numberofthenrms，however，arefiomtheChbleandWiresector，thesectorthathasbeen
traditionallymostactiveinsuperconductivity．Allofthem毎OrCのIeandwire
manufhcturersthathavebeeninvoIvedinthesuperconductingindustryareparticipatingin
thisprogrzmandarefbundinoneofthreeoftheprogramcores：BasicConductor，Thin
Film，andHighField．Theselectionofthesecoresindicatesthatthesenrmsaremost
interestedinresearchthatisgenerallytheclosestlinkedtocommercialization．
Distributionbyacademicspeciality
IncontrasttothelackofclearpattemsinnrmparticipationbydivisionsinISTEC，a
moredistinctseparationbyspecialitiesoccurswhenoneexaminestheacademic
backgroundsoftheresearchers．ThisisshowninFigure28．Theclearestconcentrations
inspecialityoccurinthetheoryorienteddivision，Divisionl，andtheNagoyaDivision．In
Divisionl，100fthe15researcherscomefromaphysicsbackgroundandan0ther2from
materialsscience・IntheNagoyaDivision，70fthe9researcherscome丘omachemistry
backgroundandanother丘ommaterialsscience．ISTECrepresentativesinterviewed
indicatedthattherewasageneraldesirebydispatchingnrmsintheNagoyaareato
emphasizematerialsandceramicsskillsasthatisconsideredoneoftheirunique
characteristics．
Theonesurprisemightbethelargepresenceofelectricalengineersinthebasic
materialsgroup，Division2．Thisappearstorenecttheimportanceofadvance
instrumentationinconductingthematerialsanalysesdesired，andthefusionofskills
necessarytocontinuepromotionbasicresearchinthisneld．
IntheMulti－CoreProgram，diffbrencesappearbetweentheinterestsofindustrial
anduniversityparticipants・Itis丘equentlyarguedthatcompanieswillbemuchmore
interestedinskillsorcapabilitiesthatcanbeusedtobringproductstomarketsoonerrather
thanlater．Whereasuniversityresearchersareo丘enassumedtobeinterestedinmorebasic
questionsofthestruCtureandbehaviorof－materialS．Thedataconfirmsthatthisishow
Participationisdivided．
Figure29showsparticipationinthevariouscoresbyuniversityandindustrial
Organizationandshowsthatthereisindeedsomesegregationofinterestsbetweenindustrial
－123－
INDUSTRYANDUNIVERSITYPARTICIAlyrIONINTHEMULTI－COREPROJECr
ーーNA　－
SpaCeEl1VironJllCl－l
NeWSupercol－Cluc10rS
Pl汀incation
uleOry
CllerllicnlCo111匹S吊orl
IlligIIFie】dPropCrlies
Li山ograpIly
CrystalStructurcs
SingleCり′Stal
PllySICal＆CllmIical
Tllill Fillll
Ra（iiation
Processlng
DatabnSc
0　　　　　　　　2　　　　　　　　4　　　　　　　（i　　　　　　　8　　　　　　　10　　　　　　12
NmllberOrOr針目liZaliol15
国hlm＿C。re
□universili。S
I Fim－S
Fi望reNu Uniくe邑宙andInduslをPaユin嘗iOninMu－ti・COIePrOgロmCOICS
anduniversityparticipants．Again，theheaviestindustrialparticipationisinDr．Maeda’s
BasicConductorcore，WhichispedlaPSthemostcleadydirectedtowardgenerically
applicdbleprocessingissues・HeretheindustrialcooperatOrSarepurSuingteclmiquessuch
asCVD，SPuttering，lasermelting，Silversheathing，SOlgel，andmultinlimentconstruction．
CVI）andsputteringprqjectsarebeingpursuedbyseveralparticipants，Whichmaybea
reflectioIlOfthegeneralnotioninJapanthatthesetwotechniquesarethemostsuitedfbr
scale－upandmanufhcturing．99
I）r．Maeda’scoreisfbllowedinpopularitybyDr．Ogawa’sThinFilmCorewhich
isalsodirectedtowardprocessfbcussedresearch．Researchaddressedincludes nlm
layeringtechniquesfbrbismuthcompounds，bismuthnlmprocessinginaleadvapor
environment，andnlmgrowthtechniques．
InboththeBasicConductorandThinFilmcores，theindustrialpresencenoticeably
OutWeighstheuniversitypresence．
Themorepopularcoresamonguniversityproftssorsarethephysicalandchemical，
Slnglecrystal，CryStalstructure，anddatabasecores．Researchinthenrstthreeofthese
coresisdirectedtowardmorebasicstudiesofmaterialstructureandbehavior．Inthe
Physicalandchemicalanalysiscore，Subthemesincludesurfhce，microareaandtrace
analysisofthematerialS，withtheresearchbeingconductedusingarangeofmaterials
analysistooIsincludingXPS／ESCA，XRD，SIMSnMA，AugerspeCtrOSCOPy，SEMand
EDX．Thesinglecrystalcoreaddressesthemessuchasnuxfbrmationandpinning，grain
boundaryfbrmation，andcrystalgrowthanalysis，al1areaswhicharealsoimportantfbr
developingandconnrmingtheoriesof－materialbehavior．Final1y，thecrystalstructurecore
aimsattheanalysisoftheatomicandelectronicstructureofHTSmaterialsthroughX－ray
andneutronscattering，ESCA，highprecisionelectronspectroscopy，andby1991，through
anelectronmicroscopethatwi11havearesolutionontheorderoflangstrom，themost
PreCiseintheworld．
Theknowledgegainedis，however，mOreremOVed丘omapplicationthanthe
researchtargetedtowardprocesSingquestions，andtheinfbrmationismoredimcultto
appropriate．Thistypeofresearchisalsocommonlysharedinthescientincliterature，
Whichfhrthercomplicatesappropriation．Ineachofthesethreecoreareas，thereisno
Privatesectorparticipation．
Althoughnotresearch，thedatabaseactivitiesofMulti－Corearebyfhrthemost
highlysubscribedbyuniversityparticipants．Assuchadatabasewouldserveasa
99JapanTechn010gyEvaluationCenter，逓亘⊆＿巳地珪＿旦裏地出ユ班迫旦【召迦堕
塾迫堅匹嘘旦！亜銀地，Washington：NTIS，November1989，P．121．
－125一
commonresourcefbrtheresearchcommunityfbrtrackingtheprogressbeingmadebya
verylargememberofinstitutionswithinJapanandabroad，maCtivityveryconsistentwith
thetraditionalroleofuniversitiesinJapan，andasprofissorsactivelycompeteinthis
publicationarena，Participationishigh・Participationfbrtheproftssorsthusfu1nllsarole
thattheyarehmiliarandcomfb血blewith，andprovidesthemwithameansofkeeping
theirownresearchatthe丘ontieroftheneld．Inthiscase，however，thesuccessofthe
activityisnotatallappropriableandweseethattherearenoindustrialparticipants・
Inexecution，then，therearenoticeのlediffbrencesinparticipationbetweenthemore
fundamentalresearchcoresandthosethatareprocess－0riented．ThisshowsthatifinterestedorganiZationsare
丘eetobeteclmicallysegregated，SuChsegregationwilloccur：a
COnnrmationoftherationalactorassumption．
ModesofOperation
Thediffbringincentivestoparticipatealsoaffbctstheparticipationoptionsoffbred
bybothISTECandtheMulti－CoreProgram．Asmentionedeadier，inISTEC，theprogram
offbrs”Regular，’membershipsinadditiontothe’’Full”memberships・TheRegular
Membershipallowsthosewithaninterestincloselymonitoringdevelopmentsinthefieldto
dosowithlittlennancialcommitment．Alevelmoreelaborateisthesystemoffbredbythe
Multi－CorePrograminwhichtheprogramtriestomeetavarietyoflevelsofresearch
COmmitments．
OutsideorganizationscomewitharaJlgeOfcapabilitiesandlevelsofcommitmentto
HTSwhichtosomeexlentmustbeaccommodatedinthecore．Universityprofissorsare
limitedintimeandmoneybutcanbringagooddealofexpertisetotheprqiect．Firmswith
theabilitytodispatcharesearchtobecomeexpertintheareaofresearchtargetedbyacore
maynndfu11immersionintheresearchenvironmentofthecoremostattractive，Whereas
firmsthatarejustexploringthepossibilityofenteringtheneldandnrmswithdiscreet
experimentalneedsmaybemoreinterestedinusingthecorefhcilitiesfbrtestingthanfbr
training，Seekingtoavoidthecostofcommittingaresearcher．
Inoperation，therearethreeprincipalmodesofcooperationfbrthecore：user
fhcilities，COmmOnreSearChandtrainingfhcility，andparal1eltaskfhcility．Inal1cases，the
userorcooperatingorganizationsareresponsiblefbrbearingtheirownexpenSeOf
participation．
Fortheuniversityproftssorsthatparticipate，thecorehavetendedtoserveasuser
fhcilities．TheresearchequipmentinmostuniversitiesinJapanisotteninadequatetoallow
－126－
theresearchersto conduct丘ontierresearch．Theaccessibilityoffhcilitiesatthe
govemmentl血ratoriescantherefbrebeveryattractive・Inaddition，PrOftssorsdonot
havethenexibilityoftimetocommitthemselvesfu11timetotheresearch，aSWOuldbe
requiredfbrexampleatISTEC，buttheycanusethebcilitiesemcientlythroughamore
Part－time，aS－neededschedule．
Asecondmodeisasacommonresearchfhcility．Formally，eaChofthecooperating
Organizationsentersintoabilateralcontractwiththecorelaboratory，denningthescopeof
theresearchaswellasguidelinesfbrthedivisionofintellectualpropertyrights．Thusin
fbrm，thetasksofthecooperatingentitiesareinsulated丘omeachother．
However，interviewswithresearchershaveindicatedthatthesepaIationismuch
moreoneof－fbrmthanofsubstance．AttheNationalResearchInstitutefbrMetalS，fbr
example，thenveresearcherscurrentlyonassignment丘omcompaniesaretreatedlargely
thesameaStheotherresearchstaffandminglejustaSthenormalstaffdoes．Dr．Maeda，
headofthisactivity，nOtedthattheresearchisstillsofhrfiomapplicationthatcommercial
COnCemSarelow．Sincetheyaren’treallysure血utwhattheyshouldbehiding，in
PraCticetheyhaveacceptedthemorepositivestrategyofprogressingthroughmutual
leamingandtheexchangeofideas．Unlessdevelopmentsareunambiguouslytracedtothe
SOleworkofadispatchedresearcher，thepatentswilllikelybegiventothenational
lのomtory．
Thirdly，insomecases，theresearchatthelaboratoryiscoordinatedwithresearchat
acooperatingorganiZationwithoutthetransftrof’personnel：theresearchtaskis
Partitioned．Atask，fbrexample，isproposedinwhichcompaniessharematerialsanddata
Withthecorelal）．Theresearchersatthecorelaboratoryworkonthedennitionofthe
researchwiththecooperatingresearchers，butthewofkisconductedintheseparate
laboratories．hthiswayskillsanddataweremadeavailablewithouttheneedtomove
personnel．
Becauseofthevariousmodesofcollaborationwitheachofthe”cores，”guidelines
Onintellectualpropertyassignmentshavebeenle丘nexible aSmentionedearlier．Asa
generalprincipal，Whenadispatchedresearchermakesadiscoverywhilewotkingatoneor
thecenters，thepropertyrightsarenominallytobedividedevenlybetweenthedispatching
OrganiZationandtheSTA．However，inmanycases，STAomcialsstressed，national
laboratorypersonnelwillbeleadingtheresearchorwi11conductthebulkoftheresearch，in
WhichcaSemOStOralloftheownershiprightwillbevestedillthegovemment．
－127－
TheImpactonInnovation
ResearchintomaterialsthatshowsuperCOnductivityathighertemperaturesisstillin
anascentphase．Thereisnocertaintyaboutwhatotherma土erialswillsuperconduct，What
bringsaboutthesuperCOnductivity，WhattemperatureSOrCurrentlimitscanbeachieved，Or
whatpr∝eSSinglimitationswillproveunmanageable・NewHTSmaterialscontinueto
appear，SuChastheCatbon－60compoundswhichwereshowninearly1991to
SuperCOnduct，andprocessingimprovementssucha5SumitomoElectriC’sannouncementor
altelsahighneldbismuthoxidemagnetinMarchofl99lortheirannouncementofa
bismuthmagnetthatcouldgeneratea2250gaussneldina23telsaenvironmentinMayof
1991，100continuetochallengedoubtersofthematerial’spracticality．AsbothISTECand
Multi－Corehaveonlyrecentlybeguntheirresearch，attemPtStOmeaSuretheirscientinc
PrOductivityandimpactarecertainlypremature．However，OneCanlookatstructural
fbaturesoftheprogramsandexaninequestionssuchaswhethertheprogramsare
COmPrehensiveandcomplementaryintheircoverage，howtheyattempttoadvancethecore
SCience，andhowtheparticipationpattemsrenectcontributionstodiversincation，
dimlSion，developingcomplementaryassets，andtraining．
Comprehensiveness ofTechnicalCoverage
GiventhatbothISTECandtheMulti－CorePrqjectnominallyaddressthesame
COnCem，thefundamentaladvanceofoxidesuperCOnductors，thequestionariseshboutthe
extenttowhichtheprogramscomplementeachother．Dotheorganizationsappeartobe
moreorlesscomprehensiveinitstechnicalcoverage？Istheirworkcomplementaryor
redundant？Aretherenoticのblediffbrencesinparticipationorparticipationpattems？
InTable13IhaveattemptedtosummarizeareasofsimilarityanddifTbrencein
technicalactivitybetweeIIISTECandSTA．Bothareactiveintheirpursuitofinsights
aboutthebasicpropertiesofthematerials，eXPlorationofchemicalprocesslngteChniques，
thinnlmprocesslng，andthesearchofnewmaterials．Howeverfbrthelatertwo，thelevel
OfactivityatISTECisnotablyhigherthaninthecoreprogrzms．
ThereverseistrueofthedatabaseactivitieswhichbothorganiZationsare
undertaking．Asmorepurelyacommongoodratherthananappropriableadvantage，
1∞－KyoJibaHasseiniSeiko，BisumasukeiChodendozaド虫塗址塾畦担，March6，1991；and
’’BisumasukeiChodendowoYoite23tesurashitade2250GausuHassei．’NewsRelease，
SumitomoElectric，May13，1991．
－128－
Tal）1e13　　AreasofSimi1arityandDifrbrenceintheISTECandMulti－CorePrograms
ISTEC MULTI－CORE
AreasofSimilarity
ThcoⅣ　　　　　　　　　　Theoけ
EvaluationofProperties PhysicalandChemicalProperties
AnalysisofCrystalStructures
ChemicalCompositions
PhysicalAnalysIS
NewMaterials
ChemicalProcessing
ThinFilm
NewSuperconductors
PurincationofComponents
SingleCrystalAnalyses
ChemicalProcessing
ThinFilm
Lithography
AreasofDiffbrence
OrgmicMaterials Space
HighFieldResearch
High－CurrentMaterials Radiation
industrialparticipantsseemminimallyinterestedincommittingstafrtothisactivity・
HowevertheprofbssorsintheMulti－CorePrqjecthavegatheredinthiscoretoafhrgreater
degreethananyoftheothercores．InISTEC，bycontrast，therewerestillnostaff
membersassignedtothisdivision，Otherthanthehead，byeady1990．
Thetablealsopointstoareaswhichtheprogramsarepursuingseparately．Two
ISTECdivisionsthathavereceivedlittleatterltioninSTAaddresshighcurrentmaterials
andorganicmaterials，Becauseoftherelevancefbrelectricitytransmission，andthe
COnSPicuouspresenceofJapan’selectricutilitiesinISTEC，thecenterhasadivision
lookingintoprocessingteclmiquestodevelopmaterialscapableofcarryinghighcurrents
fbrpowerapplications．STAisabsentsuchacoreasthepnmaryconstituencyfbrsuchan
applicationdoesnotcomeundertheadministrativeeyeofSTAandisdbsentfiomthe
PrOgram．Attheotherendoftheapplied－basicspeCtrum，ISTECisexploringthe
POSSibilitiesofanevenmoreexoticandpoorlyunderstoodsuperCOnductirlgmaterial－
OrganicsuperCOnductors．ThisisaneldthatparticularlyintriguesDr．Tanakaasthe
molecularstructureofthematerialsarefhrmorecomplexthanOXidesandmetallics，andas
－129－
thepossibilitiesmaybewithoutlimit・TheSTAprogramisabsentofanorganicmaterial
activityastherewasnotasimilarinnuentialvoiceintheMulti－Coreprqjectpressingfbr
thisresearchtheme．
IntheSTAprogram，theuniquecoreappearCloselyrelatedtouniquefunctionsof
theagencyaswellasuniquecapのilitiesthatthelaboratoriesaretryingtodevelop．As
describedinanearliersection，Onenear－tempOSSibilityfbrtheuSeOfITrSisits
applicationinspace．Sincespacetemperaturesareontheorderof30－40K，manyOfthe
CurrentHTSmaterialsbecomecandidates．NASDA，theNationalAeronauticandSpace
DevelopmentAgency，aquaSi－gOVemmentalorganizationsupervisedbytheSTA，is
ChargedwithJapan’sdevelopmentofspaceactivities，afunctionwhichdoesnotbelongto
MITI．STAcanthusexerciseitsjurisdictionalauth0rityoverthisareaofdevelopmentand
Claimitasmorenaturallybelongingtotheirprograms．
Similady，JAERI，theJapanAtomicEnergyResearchInstitute，aquaSi一
goverTmentalorganizationsuperVisedbytheSTA，isalsochargedwithfunctionsunique
fbmMITIthataSSistincarvingaresearchniche．JAERIisresponsiblefbrtheresearch
anddevelopmentofnuclearnssionandfusionteclm010giesandexperimentationwith
radioactivematerialS．AlthoughMITIisactivelyinvoIvedwiththecommercializationof
nssion，itdoesnotplayasignincantroleinR＆D．Furthermore，STAhasprincipal
auth0rityinfhsionand，aSdescribedeadier，fusionexpe血lentSrequireextremelyhigh
magneticneldswhichrequlreSuperCOnductingmagnets．Asaresult，STA’sresearch
examiningtheefftctofradioactivematerialsonSCperfbrmanceisalsouniquefromthe
workinISTEC．
Final1ythereistheHighMagneticFieldcorewhichisprimarilyafhcilities
developmentprqjecttogiveSTAthemostPowerfu11aboratorymagnetintheworldwhenit
iscompletedin1992．Here，unlikeMITIwhichischargedwithsupportingtheactivitiesoftheindustry，
STAcanleverageitsmissionofsupportingadvancedsciencetojustifythe
investmentintoaverylargeresearchfhcility．UnlikeMITI，STAhasmuchmoreofa
legitimatechargetosupportbigscienceprqjects．
Sohowdoesparticipationcomparebetweentheareasofprogramovedapandthe
areasofuniqueactivity？ulegreateStparticipationinbothprogramsareintheareasin
Whichtheirteclmicalthemesofthetwoprogramsoverlap．
TheISTECeffbrtsintheory，Chemicalprocessingandthinnlmprocesslngare
ratherevenlyandwellstaffbd，buttheactivityinhighcurrentmaterialsattheNagoya
branchhasrough1yhalfthisstafrlevelandtheorganicmaterialsprqiecthaslessthana
quarter・IntheMulti－Coreprogram，thespaceactivityhasyettoattractacooperating
OrganiZation．TheHighFieldcorehastwoindustrialparticipant5，butthesefimlSare
－130－
invoIvedinthedesignaLndconstructionofthemagnetratherthaninexperimentation．Of
Multi－Core’sactivitiesthatareunique丘omISTEC，0nlytheRadiationcorehasattracted
actualresearchcooperators・However，eVeninthismse，COOperationisagainwith
Organizationsthathavealreadybeendealingtheinstitutefbritsnssionandfusionactivities．
Whythelowparticipation？
Spaceisapossiblenear－termaPPlicationbutthemarketislimited．Highcurrent
applicationswouldoffbralargemarket，butcommercialiZationisgenerallyconsideredmore
distantthanthinnlmandmagnetapplications．Applicationoforganicmaterialsiseven
furtheraway．Highneldexperimentsmaybecomepopularwhenthefhcilitiesareavailable，
butfbrmostofthedurationofthepr亘iect，thisisaconstruCtionactivity．Theteclmical
breadthprovidedthroughtheuniqueaspeCtSboththeMulti－CoreandISTECprqjectsis
thusmuchlesscentraltothetechnicalinterestsofthecooperatOrSthantheareasthatthey
aresupportingincommon：prOCeSSingandcharacterization．Comprehensivenessisnotas
importantfbrcoopefatiollaStargetingcoreissues．
Thuswheretheprogramsmightbesaidtobeaddressinggapsoutsideofthecore
interestsoftheneld，WeSeemuChlessinterestincoopeIation・Thisisarelevantwaming
fbrotherswhodesigncooperativeprogramstoadvanceaneldofscience・Cooperators
willbemuchmoreinterestedincorecapabilitiesthanperipheralgaps，SOifgap－nllingora
COmPrehensiveprogramisdesired，directcontIaCtreSearChwillbemoreeffbctive．
Cooperatorsaimtowardtheirtechnicalinterests，andthoseinterestsareseentobeinthe
coreissuesoftheneld．
AdvancingtheCoreScience－CooDerationasaPoliticalStrategv
Althoughtheseprogramsaredesignedtoleveragecooperationfbrthepromotionof
thisneld，Iwouldarguethatoneofthemostimportzultbenentsarethescienceisseparate
丘omthelevelsof’cooperation．ForboththeISTECandMulti－CoreProgramsavaluable
benentofthecooperativeschemeisthepoliticalleverageitprovidesintryingtogetanew
PrOgramfunded．ForMITI，thecooperativeschemewithbroadindustrialcommitment
ShowstheMinistryofFinanceandmembersoftheDietthatthisactivityhassignincant
industrialinterest，butwhich，becauseOfitslong－teml，unCertainnaturewarTantS
govemmentsupport・IndustrialcooperationlegitimizesMITI’sentryintothisneldof
ratherbasicresearch．
FortheMulti－CoreProgrzm，COOPerationsimilarpoliticalbenentswhichleadto
evengreaterretumstotheprogram．AswithgovemmentlaboratoriesintheUnitedStates，
thereisanincreasingdesireamongpolicymakersinJapanaswelltoseetheemcient
ー131－
transftroftheresearchgeneratedbypublicbodiestotheindustryanduniversities．Itis
bothpolitical1ypopularandnecessarytoshowhowthegovernment’sinvestmentin
researchwillmakeitswayintotheeconomy．Thecooperativesystemprovidesthis
rationalC．Withoutprivatesectorparticipation，thechancesofgettingtheprogramfunded
wouldhavebeenmuchlesscertain．
Leveragingthesymbolofcooperation，bothprogrmswereestablished・Butthe
maincontributiontothesciencewasnotincooperation．Forbothprogramsitisinthe
equipmentinvestmentthathasbeenenabledandtheal）ilitytocommitpersonneltothistask
OVeralong－term．
IfenhancingcollectiveresearchorindustrialTnrticipationwasthegoalinMulti－
Core，thenonemightconcludethatthegoalwasonlybeingachievedataslgnincantcost・
Ifthecostofeachcoreisdividedbythenumberofcooperatingorgani皿tions，itisclear
thatachievingcooperationisexpensive．In1989，fbrexample，SeVenOfthecorehavean
averagecostpercooperatorofbetweenl0－100millionyen，Withtwootherswellabove
lOOmillionyenperCOOperatOr．Thus，ifthegovemmentinvestmentinMulti－Coreis
judgedasthecostofenticingparticipation，thenitmightseemlikeabaddeal．Howeverif
itisjudgedasaninvestmentinnewresearchfhcilitiestoaddressanexcitingnewneldata
timeofverytightbudgets，andanopportunitytoconcentratein－houselaboratory
PerSOnnel，itmightbejudgedacleverlyexecutedplay．
Recallthatstaffhgfbrthenational1aboratoriesispaidfbroutofthegeneral
laboratorypersonnelbudget，ThuswhenfundsarereceivedfbrbigprqjectssuchasMulti－
Core，almostallofthefundscangotoequipmentandmaterialS．
Thethreelargestinvestmentsthatwi11bemadebytheprqjectarethedevelopment
Ofa40ThybridsuperCOnductingmagnetanda20Tlarge－aPertureSuPerCOnducting
magnetattheNationalResearchInstitutefbrMetalS，andandanultra－highprecision
electronmicroscopeattheNationalResearchInstitutefbrInorganicMetals・
Thelargestmagnetinthewoddthatiscurrentlyavailablefbrmaterialsresearch
PurPOSeSisa30TmagnetatMIT，Withtheuniversitycurrentlybuildinga35Tsystem
Whichisscheduledtobecompletedthisyear，1990．Thus，theplanned40Tmagnetat
NRJM，Whencompletedin1992，Willtakeitsplaceasthelargestintheworld・Withthe
40Tmagnetresearchershopetomakemoreprecisemeasurementsofcriticalcurrent
densitiesinsuperconductingmaterials，tOeXplorethebasicphenomenathatwouldprovide
fbrahighercriticalcurrentdensity，andtoinvestigatemethodsoffhbricatingwiresfiom
newsuperconductingmaterials．
－132－
Tal）1e14．　MagnetstobeHousedintheHighFieldMagnetCenterlOl
Magnet Cost（Millionyen）
－1－－－－－一．．－．4．．－・－．－－－．．．H．4．．H－1－－1－．t．－．．．．．一．一一一一．1．．一－．H．．．一．．．．．．－．．．－JT．．一．．　　　－－－．．．－1－－－H一一．－－－－．．－一．．－－1－－－－－・－－－．－－Jq．4h－1，
80Tlong－pulsemagnet
40Thybridmagnet
20Tlarge－aPertureSCmagnet
Super－minutemagneticneldmeasuringsystem
Centerbuildin
420
3，200
770
450
4，800
The20Tmagnetisbeingdesignedwitharelativelylarge150mmdiametertesting
SPaCeWhichcanbeusedfbrlargerbulkmaterialsspecimens．Testswouldincludehigh
PreSSureStreSSteStSandelectromagneticstdbilitytestsunderaltematingcurrents．These
twomagnetswillbehousedinthesamefhcility，theHighFieldMagnetCenter，aSWilla
recentlyconstructed80Tlong－pulsemagnetanda16Tsystemdesignedfbrhighaccuracy
andhighstAbilitytoconductsuper－minuteneldmeasurements．Thesemagnetsandtheir
costsaresummarizedonTable14．
TheotherlargepieceofexperimentalequipmerlttObedevelopedfbrresearchinthe
PrOgramisaveryhighresolutionelectronmicroscopeWhichistobeusedfbrtheanalysis
Oftheelectronicandatomicstructuresofcrystals．Atanestimatedcostof900millionyen，
thedeviceisdesignedtoprovidefbrresolutiondowntolAngstrom，thehighestresolution
availableintheworld．
Thereare，inaddition，anarrayOfexperimentaldevicesbeingboughtorupgraded
throughthisprogram．AppendixBlistssummarizesthemoresignincantpiecesof
equipmentadvertisedbyeachofthecores．CollectedintheCoresisanimpressivearrayof
advancedevicesfbrprobingandpokingatthenewmaterialS．Someofthedevicesare
discreet，aSintheLithographycore，SOmetailoredtospeCificends，SuChasattheRadiation
EfTbctscore，andsomecorehaveacollectionofbroadlyapplicableequipmentasseeninthe
PhysicalandChemicalcore．102
101NSFReportMemorandum＃162，′・STAtoBuildaHighFiefdMagnetcenterforthe，Multicore
Project，”’August10，1988．
102　　However，eVenthoughmuchofthebudget†ortheMulti－CoreProjectis†orequlPment
investment，itisaJsotruethatthemajOrPJeCeSOfequIPment，WhicheventheJargestcompanies
donotpossess，W川notbeavailableuntil1991or1992．
胃133－
TheotherbenenttothescienceistheabilitytoconcentrateperSOnnel・Although
thereareonlyoneortwoindustrialcooperatorsinmanyofthecores，theaveragenumber
ofresearchersassignedbythehostinglaboratorytoacoreactivityis10to15．The
prlnCipalbenenciariesoftheMulti－Coreschemearethereforethecorehboratories，and
possiblythescience，aSitprovidesfbradvancedresearchwithstate－Of・the－artand
intemationallyleadingequipmentbyprovidingthepoliticalkeyfbrpurchasingadvanced
fhcilitiesfbrthelaboratories．
Core Enhancement vs．Diversifieation
Becauseofthevarietyofspecialitiesandresourcesoffbredthroughthecore
laboratoriesofthesetwoprograms，Onemightguessthattheprogramwouldhavean
industrialimI氾Ctbyenhancingtheskillsofthecoreindustries；Orthattheprogramwilladd
totheskillsofnrmsnewtosuperconductivityandencouragediversincation．Isthere
evidenceofeithercoreenhancementordiversincation？InthediscussionbelowIwill
examinetheextentanddepthofdiversincationbylookingatindicatorsthatincludethe
industrialsectorsparticipating，thelengthofexperienceofparticipatingnmlSin
SuPerCOnductivityresearch，andthesizeoftheinhouseresearchstaff－investigating
SuperCOnductivity．
Firstwecanlookattherelativeinnovativeactivityofthenrmsparticipatingin
ISTEC．Bycomparingthesenrmswiththelargersetofnrmsgeneral1yactiveinHTS，We
CanSeethatparticipantsaccountforasignincanthctionofoverallactivity．Figure29
Showsthenumberofpatentapplicationsinsuperconductivityoffbredbyfhll－SuPPOrt
memberscomparedwithindustrytotalsfbral1nrmssubmittingtwoormoreapplications
betweenearly－1987andmid－1988．
ThenrmsthathavethelongesthistoryofinvoIvementinsuperconductivityresearch
arerepresentedinthecableandwire，andtheelectricmachinerysectors．Allofthem亘ior
Cd）1eandwirenrmSeXCePtfbrShowaDenkoareparticipatingasfu11members，andallof
theelectricmachinerymanufhcturersthathavesubstzmtialhistoriesinsuperconductivity
R＆DarealsopresentwiththeexceptionofFujiElectriC．
Figure30alsoshowssomeeffbctofindustrialdiversincation，aSnrmSWhichhad
notconductedsuperconductivityresearchpriortoHTShaveusedISTECasavehicletoget
Started．Theseincludenmsthatarelargelyeitherpotentialmaterialssuppliersorlikely
materialsuserssuchasthoseintheceramics，ironandsteel，mining，Shipbuilding，
electriCalmachinery，electronics，auldcommunicationsindustries．Mostofthepatent
ー134胃
1ヽ∧T王NT八mluC＾TlONSSUljMHYrED11TrlヽVril三Nj＾N87＾NDDl三C n8
ーー∽∽　－
ELECrlUCUTILITY
PRECISION MACHN
MOTORVl三日lCLE
Slll】）r）UILDING
ELEClRlCMACHN
CONSUMER ELECT
COMMUNIC∧TlON
I佗∧VYELECT】引C
INDUSTRlALM＾CN
MACHlNET00LS
MET＾LPRODUCTS
C∧DLESalldWIRE
NONFERROUS
IRON＝lCISTEEL
CEMENT
GLASSan（lCliR∧MICS
PETROLEUMaHdRU11
mHARM∧CELJTIC∧u
CHEM】C∧L5
TEXuLES
CONSTRUCTlON
htINING
0　　　　　　　200　　　　　　400　　　　　　（IOO　　　　　　800　　　　　1000　　　　　1200
NUMm三110ド1ヽ∧TENTS
ロ∧Ll。PATEⅣB
l】Sll三CnJLL
Fi望reuO PatentApp】in巴iOnSbylSTHCFu苧SuppOユMemg譲COmparedwith
IndustqTO邑S
applicationsbynrmsinthekeymaterialssupplyandsystemsdevelopmentindustriesare
seentobefbmmembersofISTEC・Theexceptionisthechemicalindustry，inwhichonly
asmallpercentageisrepresentedinthecenter．
IntheMulti－CoreProgram，therearealsoabroadrangeofsectorsrepresentedby
theparticipatingfirms．However，inthisprogramconclusions血uttheinnuenceon
industrialdiversitymustbesomewhatguardedaseachindustryistypicallyrepresentedby
onlyonenrm．Althoughhalfofthefirmsdoappeartobediversifying，thecollectivescale
israthersmal1．ThusintheMulti－Corecase，itismoreappropriatetosaythatnrms丘oma
varietyofindustrialsectorsshowinterestindiversinCation，butthatthegeneraleffbctorl
industriaHeveldiversincationislimited．
Anotherindicatorofanml’sattempttodiversifyisatthenewnessof－thenrm’sto
thisfield．Forthosenrmswithlong，eStablishedsuperconductivityprograms，Participation
mightbeconsideredmoreofaneXtenSionofitsexistingcapd）ilities．Fornrmswhichhave
OnlyenteredsincethediscoveryofHTS，Ontheotherhandtheprogramisacleareraidfbr
diversincation．
Theaveragenumberofyearsinsuperconductivityamongnrmsindiffbrentsectors
WaSShownearlierinFigure3．14，alsoconnrmingtherecentmigrationintothenelda負er
HTS．ThengureshowsthatonlyfirmsintheCableandWireandHeavyElectric
Industrieshavesignincantexperience．IntheMulti－CoreProgram，thecooperatingnrms
aredividedbetweenthosethathavealonghistoryinthisneld，greaterthanlOyears，those
Withamoderatehistory，between3－10years，andthosethathaveonlyenteredtheneld
SincethediscoveryofHTS．Figure31showsthataboutonehalfofthenrmsarewell
SeaSOned，withalonginvestmentinthisneld，andaboutonehalfhaveonlystartedsince
thehightemperaturediscoveries．Figure32showsthatthedistributionofthesenrmsis
aisoratherevenacrossthevariouscores，furthersupportingtheviewthatbothnrms
Seekingdiversincationandthoseseekingtoenhancetheirpresenceinsuperconductivityare
evenlyrepresentedintheprQject．
Thirdly，OneCanalsoaskhowimportantparticipationineachoftheseprogramsis
toeachofthesenms．Althoughthenumberofresearcherspernrmsmaybelow，itisthe
relativeimpactforthenrmthatisimportant．Togaugetherelativetrueimpactof
participation，itisusefu1toexaminethesizeoftheinhousestaffworkingon
SuPerCOnductivityR＆Dastheprqject’sinnuencemaybemoresignincantfbrnrmsthat
haveasmal1effbrt．
ー136－
Figure31　LengthofExperienceinSuperCOnductivity，Mutli－CoreProgram
Mcore．FirmHisto汀．Ple
FIRMHISTORYINSUPERCONDUCTIVITYR＆DAMONGMULTl＿COREPARTICIPANTS
ー137－
HISTORYIN SUPERCONDUCTIVITY R＆D AMONG MULTICORE
PARTICIPANTS
1－∽∞　－
Pr∝eSSillg TllillFill－1　　　RnCHaliorl l｝しけiric：ltio－1　　L?10巳raPlly　　　川gllドicl（l Cl一cmicnl
ProIXrtiCS Coml）05iliorl
臼Long
⊂白血症冊一
T SH。rl
Fi望reuN Disl誅uliOnOrFiヨSinMu－ti・COrePrO的召ロ
Figure33showsanapproximationofthenumberoftotalresearchersworkingon
SuperCOnductivityineachofthefu11supportmembernrmsandtheirratiowiththenumber
OfresearchersdispatchedtoISTECatanyonetime：thisisfixedatamaximumof2
researchers・103　ThengureshowsthatISTEC，spresenceismuchmoresignincantfbr
nrmswhichareattemptingtoentertheneld．Inthechemicals，glassandceramics，and
automotivesectors，theISTECresearchersrepresent40％ormoreofthetotalnrmeffbrtin
HTS・ForthesectorsmosttIaditionallyactiveinSC，heavyelectricandcableandwire，the
ngureisaround5％・ISTECparticipationalsooccupiesalargeperCentageOftheutility
researchinthisarea，butrecallthattheutilitiesarereallyactingmorelikeabankthana
technicalcontributor．
Figure34summarizesthelevelofinhouseactivityof爪rmSParticipatinginthe
Multi－CoreProgram．Firmsaredividedbetweenthosethathavefbwerthan5inhouse
researchersworkinginsuperconductivity，thosewithbetween5and20，andthosewith
greaterthan20・Thengureshowsthatslightlymorethanhalfofthenrmshaveonlya
Smallinhousestaff，Withthesesamenrmsgenerallyhaving enteredsuperconductivity
Sincethehightemperaturediscovery・0nlyoneoftheparticipatingnrms，amajor
COnSumerelectronicSmanufhcturer，hasashorthistoryyetarelativelyhighlevelofin
houseactivity．Thusfbrtheparticipatingnrmsthatarenewtothisneld，Multi－Coreisa
Signincantelementoftheirinvestmentinthisactivity．Inaddition，abouthalfofthesenew
nrmsare旦QtparticipantsintheISTECprogram，reneCtingthelowercostsandmore
nexibletermsofparticipationinresearchinMulti－Core．
Figure35providesevidencethatexperiencedandhighlyactivenrmswi11participate
inthesamecoreasinexperiencednrmswithsmal1staffiworkingonsuperconductivity．
Sincetheagreementsbetweenthenrmsandthecorelal）OratOriesarebilateral1y
COOperative，nOtmultilaterallyso，irlter爪rmdependenciesarenotsigninCant．Here，
COmmOnParticipationisnotasignincantbarriertoentryortonrmleveldiversincation．
Thuswithregardtonrmleveldiversincation，WeCanCOnCludethatbothISTECand
theMulti－CoreprQjectcontributetoboththeenhancementofveterannrmsintheindustry
arldtoothernrmstryingtodiversify．Bothlarge，Wellestab】ishedactorsandsmall，neW
playershavefoundparticipationtobeintheirinterests，andbothparticipate．
1030necanclaimthatlSTECwi．lactuaHytrainuptolOresearchersasmanyresearchersw川be
rotatedoutbytheirc？mPaniesafter20r3years，but川useapointintimeargument（some
researchersinthemalnJaboratoryw肛aftera”，alsoberotatedinandoutofsuperconductivity．so
thisnumberisnotfixedeither．）
ー139胃
＾VElt＾GEPERCl三NT＾GEOlTlTIltM】「rS RESl三人ltCIIEltS TNIS11三C
・l・－）合・・－
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一，ELI三CrRIC．M＾C日．
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UTH＿rrIES
Gl一人SSalldCElと人MICS
人UTOMOmLE
：一一一一一一一一：一一一一一：：一一工一一一：ー工一一一一：一一一一一一；
；：工：：ー：：：工：：：：：：：：：：：：：：：：：：：：：：工：：：一、：一一一工：一一一：：：：：：：：：：：：工：ー：一一一一j
二二一二∵二二：二二二二二二二二、‥‥・1’、二二二一］
二二二二二二二一…‥日日…?…?‥…－…?…一、日一一．…‥…－‥‥－‥‥………、‥??‥！
0　　　　　　5　　　　　　10　　　　　15　　　　　　20　　　　　　25　　　　　　30　　　　　］5　　　　　　40
Pl三RCENT＾GEOF1tl三Sl三人RC?l三RS
コ的Creいい・　㌍ti00rISTMCカbSearChe竺OFHO玩eカbSearChe拐許Pa註cipaliロ的
FiコロS
Figure34・　LevelofIn－HouseActivityinHTSofFirmsParticipatingintheMulti－Core
Program
≡）、－車
≡コ竜三口
重〓日
S↑Zく（〓Uこしーく（〓之＜ベlU○ぎーグn【OU⊥↑、〓｝フ二UZOΣく〔〓コート↑【＞〓LU⊃OZOU”－い≡⊃S Z：ン己○↑S〓－1
－141－
〓〇三召（ニ〓OU
二“Uで；l一U
薫菩告－（【
≡ヱLl一ぎ一
OVERALL LEVEL OF FIRM ACTIVITYIN
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY R＆D AMONG MULrI－CORE PROGRAM
PARTICIPANTS
－－－N　－
00
日　b e r F・1　r n S
ProcessH1g lllillFil?l Rn（liハLio－1　　　PLlrincZl五ml LilllOgr叩hy　　　川Llhドic】（J Chc＝lic＝tl
l）rol㌍lliCS Co呵）05itioll
広川Cll
□MⅨlitll一、
題L。、V
句i望re霊・　Mi迫ureOr何層e計ncedwilhFe眉C且のnCed句ims5．Mu】ti・COrePrOgロm
CompIementarity
Withdiversesectoralparticipation，Onemightalsoasktowhatextenttheprograms
areassistinginthecreationofimportantcomplementaryorsupportingindustriesfbrHTS．
SincetheworkistargetedatscienceratherthanteClm0logy，One丘ndsthatitisdimcultto
Predictwheretheimportantscientinccomplementaritiesliethatwi11alsoleadto
complementaritiesinthemarket．Additional1y，becauseindustrialparticipationinmanyof
thecoresisratherthin，with0nlyoneortwoparticipants，Verticalordiagonallinkswith
Othernrmsarenotlikelytobesignincant．
Itispossible，however，tOgetarOughsenseOfpotentialverticalcomplementarities
byselectingtheISTECdivisionsandMulti－Corecoresthathavetwoormoreparticipants
anddividiflgtheiramliationsbetweenthosethatarepnmarilymaterialsstlpPliersandthose
thatareprimarilysystemsordevicedevelopers．Figure36showstheproportionof
SuPPliersversususersintheISTECprogram．Thengureshowsthatthesuppliersand
usersarewellmixedineachofthedivisions．Thegreaternurnberofusersparticipatingin
theprqjectleadstoadi拝もrenceinnumberofparticipants，butthisgapisnottoodifftrent
betweendivisions．Theprincipleexceptionisthetheorydivisionwhichhasmoresuppliers
thanusers．
Figure37showsthatinthreeoftheMulti－Corecores，thesplitinparticipationis
alsoroughlyequalbetweenthesetwogroups：intheprocesslng，thinnlm，andthe
radiationcore，SuPPliersanddevelopersshowequalattendance．104
Thepossibilitiesofverticalrelationshipsdevelopingthroughtheseprogramsare
thuspresentineachofthesesectionswithtwoormoreindustrialparticipants．Itisworth
noting，however，thatthetypesofresearchundertakenbytheseparticipantsarequite
Similaranddonotshowacleardistinctionbetweensuppliersanddevelopers．Thestageor
developmentofthisneld，again，appearStOOPrematurefbrclearlinkagestoariseinthe
divisionofresearch．Anyrelationshipsthatmaydevelopthroughtheinterminglingofthese
nrmsareprobablynotadirectresultoftheirworkintheprogram，butwi110nlymore
indirectlyarisethroughassociation．
104RecaHthatthehighfie－dcoreprlmarilyLnVO－vesconstructionoftheIargemagnetsforfuture
experiments．
－143－
SYSTIIM＾NDSUPPLll三111）∧ltTICll）∧NTS】NTIIEISTECPltOGlt＾M
－－AA　－
川gllCurrel115 IJllySlCHll－1・OCCSS Cllemic工l日吉ocess Ol甘IlバchlJltCliHIs NいVM山かinh
臼sl棚liCr
閻sysl川－S
叫i望鴫e宗　　POpO註OnOrS層pliOr＜e調gU∽OainlSTMCPrOgロm
Figure37　　ProportionofSuppliersversusUsersintheMulti－CoreProgram
S≡ヱ芸S転
J…≡。Sロ
LUHHrOパ≡ご?lOUlこ．」⊃三日±〓、Zl CZl↑く≡UーLパフ、ハl S－之一〓」と?コ≡「宗〔】Zく）上巳↑S＞S
l′1　　　　　　　　　　寸　　　　　　　　　　「’ヽ　　　　　　　　　　　rq
Z　コ　≡JO U L　　　0　－・　　L．・－　し　…：∽
胃145－
Difrusion
Formanyfirms，Pardcdadythosejustenteringthe丘eld，thedispatchingofasingle
researdermightmcanthecommitmentofalargeperCentageOftheorganlZation’sactive
HTSresearchteam．ThuS，unlessthematchbetweentheinterestofthenrmandthe
researchoftheprogrzmisverycomplimentary，theopportunitycostscanbehigh．Forthe
mqjorityoftheresearchorganizationsinterestedinsuperconductivitythisisthecase．For
theseandotherfirmsthatdonotnndanidealmatchwiththeresearchstrengthsofISTEC
OrSTA，themorepressingneedwassimplytokeepupwithdevelopmentsinthefieldaS
thenumberoforganizationsconductingworkwoTld－widewasverylargeandthesenseof
thespeedoftheadvancefbverishin1987．
ThusbothISTECandtheSTAhavecreatedsupplementalactivitiestotheresearch
inordertopromotethedifhsionofinformation．InISTEC，isitistheuseoftheless
expensiveRegularMembershipswhichprovideaccesstoinfbrmationproducedbythe
Center．InSTAitistheNewSuperCOnductingMaterialsForum．
Figure38showsfu11andregularmemberparticipationinISTECbysector．The
fu11picturerevealsparticipationbyseveraldifTtrenttypesoforganiZations．Inthe
CategOrieslargeIycomposedofregularmembers，therearefirstlythennanCialnrms
mentionedearlierwhichappearprimarilyinterestedintheinvestment．Asecondtypeof
nrm，isthefirminaperipheralindustrythatcouldseesignincantbenents丘omtheprqjects
Orte血010giescreatedbyHTS．Theseincludeaconspicuouslylargenumberof
COnStruCtionnrmsandacoupleoftradingcompanies．Andnnallythereareaspatteringol
nrmswhicharepotentialuserSOrSuPPOrtequipmentdeveloperSinthecategoriesof
aerospace，mOtOrVehicles，PreCisionmadlinery，andengineering．
TheForum，With148memberorganiZations，reaChesanevenwideraudience．
TheForumdisseminatesitsinfbrmationthroughanumberofmemberactivitieswhich
includeanewsletterwitharticlesreviewingresearchatvariouslaboratories，WOrkshopson
SPeCincthernessuchascurrentresearchoncriticalcurrentsinbulkmaterials，andassists
withtheholdingoflargersymPOSia．SinceitsfbundingtheForumhasheldl6
WOrkshops，withatypicalattendanceof80，2uld13SymPOSia，Whichtypicallyattract200
registrants．
Figure39showsthedistributionofForummembersbyindustrialsectors．The
ngureshowsthatForummembershipisindustriallydiverse，COVering22industrial
SeCtOIS，Withthesinglelargestnumberofnrmscoming丘omthechemicalindustry，a
SeCtOrSlimilyrepresentedinISTEC．
－146－
Figure38　　SectoralDistributionofFullandSupportMembefSinISTEC
薫≡∃⊃L F
‡㌫〓上↑?一〇三コのロ
ー147－
ParticipationintheNcwSupcrconductingMaterialsForum
ーーーふ∞1
OTHERTR＾NSPORT
MEmLPRODUCTS
SHIPBUILD】NG
CEMl三NT
PFrROLEUM礼ndRUB
TEXTILES
PUI）LICFOUND＾TION
ELECTRICUTILrrY
TR＾DTNGCOMP
MOTORVEHICLl三
GLへSSandCERAMICS
CONSUMERELECT
COMMUNIC＾TlON
RESE人RCLILABS
HE＾VYELl三CTRIC
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ELECmCMACllN
PRECISIONMACHN
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NONFERROUS
INDUmlALMACN
CHEMIC＾LS
NumberorOrganizntions
望望re山崎　　SectO邑DistユbEiOnOrSupercOnductiま屯句02mMembers
WithmuchbroaderparticipationintheForumthanintheMulti－CoreProgram，itis
notsurprisingthattheForumisperceivedasthemainactivityandcontributiontothe
industryoftheScienceandTechnologyAgency．hinterviewswithindustrial
representatives，queStionsd）OutthevalueoftheSTAprqjectswereusuallyrespondedto
WithanswersregardingtheForumratherthantheMulti－CoreProgTam．General1y，
industrialistsgavetheForumahighratingnotingthatithasbeenanefTbctivewayof
SOrtingoutprogressinthisneld，Particularlyinthenrsthecticyear．
ThecombinationofISTECandNSMFparticipationisshowninFigure40．The
ngureshowsthatwhiletherearesomesectorsinwhichnrmparticipationinbothprograms
issignincant，SuChasironandsteel，mOtOrVehicles，COmmunication，andcableandwire，
therearealsosectorsinwhichparticipationisveryComplementary，SuChaselectric
machinery，Zmdmanyotherinwhichoneprogramwasclearlyprefbrredovertheother・
Firmsinthennanceandinsurancesector，COnStruCtion，engineeringandtheelectricutilities
aremorehigh1yrepresentedintheMITIprogramandnrmsinthechemical，industrial
machinery，PreCisionmachinery，nOnfbrrousmetal，teXtile，PetrOleumandrubber，and
CementindustriesaremoreIikelytobefbundintheSTAForum．
Finallywecanasktowhatdegreethesenrmsrepresentindustryasawhole・In
Figure41thenumberofpatentapplicationsbymembernrmsiscomparedwiththeactivity
Ofal1firmssubmittingtwoormorepatentapplicationsinsuperCOnductivitybetween
January1987andJunel988．Itisclear丘omthisngurethatparticipantsrepresentthebulk
Of－innovativeactivityinthisneld，Whichthu5meanSthattheinfbrmationactivitiesofthe
PrOgramSreaChmostoftheorganizationsinthecountrythathavesignincantprogramsin
SuPerCOnductivity．
BroadandextensiveparticipationintheinfbrmationactivitiesofboththeISTEC
andNSMFprogramsindicatethattheyarewellsetuptoserveasemcientvehiclesinthe
diffusionofscientincinfbrmation．Itisinthisbuildingofinfbrmationnetwofksthat
ISTECandtheSuperconductivityForumalsoprovideafunctionnotreadilyavailableinthe
marketandprovidearlimportantcontributiontoinnovation．
Training
Animportantbenentbeingprovidedbybothprogramsisoneofresearchertraining・
Firmsareusingbothorganizationsasameansofeducatingitsyoungerresearchersina
new，fhstmovingneldinwhichtheyalmostunifbrmlyhavelittleexperience．
－149－
ORGANIZ∧TION＾LPARTICIP＾TlONINISTEC∧Nl）lNT1－1EST＾1：ORUM
ーー∽○　－
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100
NL＝lbcr or PatclltS
句暫re舎　P巴entApp詳巴iOnSOrIS↓河CandNSM苫a註cipanlsinSupercOnducti蔓y
COmparedwithIndChtqTO邑S｝JanEPq－器ご01une－冨∽
TheagedistributionofresearchersdispatchedtoISTECisshowninFigure42．
Theaverageageofthesedispatchedresearchersisjustover30．Similarly，intheMulti－
CoreProgram，laboratoriesreportedthatthecommonageofanrm’sresearcherwasjust
under30．
Thistrainingfunctionofthelaboratoryismoreclearlyrenectedinthedegree
backgroundsoftheparticipants，fbrwhichISTEChasprovideddata・105Figure43shows
thehighestdegreetakenbytheresearchersdispatchedtothevariousdivisions・Ph・D・’s
accountfbrl20fthe77researchersincludedinthissurvey，Or16％oftheresearchstaftl
butmaster，slevelandbachelor，slevelresearchersmakeupthebulkoftheresearchtalent，
numbering41（53％）and24（31％）respectively．Prof：Tanakahasnotedthatmanyof
thesedispatchedresearchersareexpeCtedtousetheirworkinaneffbrttogainaPh・D・
degree．105
Theexchangeisnotjustoneway，however，aSthehboratoriesintheMulti－Core
Programefrbctivelygainstafrfbmparticipation．Withthecoreresearcherstypicallymuch
Olderandmoreexperiencedthanthedispatchedresearcher，itiscommonthatthecorewill
exercisesomesupervisoryroleoverthedispatchedresearchertoassurethattheresearchis
directedtowardproblemsofsignincance．Dr．MaedaofNRJMnotedthatallofthe
dispatchedresearcherswhoparticipateintheBasicConductorcorearetreatedlikenormal
1aboratorystafL Theymingle，discusstheirwofk，andsubmitthemselvestovirtuallythe
SameSuperVisionaspurelySTAstafL Althoughuniversityproftssorsdonotparticipatein
thedaytodaygrindofresearchatthecore，theirexpenenCeandadvicecanbeavaluable
COntributiontotheworkofthelaboratoryandagoodexchangefbrtheiraccesstothe
fhcilities．
ConcIudingPoints
ThisreviewoftheISTECandMulti－Coreprqjectsprovidesuswiththefbllowing
COnClusionsaboutthemodeofpolicyfbrmation，theshapeoftheorganization，andtherole
Oftheprqjectsininnovationintheneld．
1）　MITIdidnotmove’’atthespeedoflight．”Infhct，itwastheslowestofthe
bureaucraciestoinitiateworkonanHTSR＆Dprogram．TheleadinthisneldwaSinthe
Privatesectorandtheuniversities．
105ThisdatawaspreparedbyMr・NakagawaoftheSRLandisdatedApri．5，1990・
1C6，．LookingBackwardandLookingForwardatSRL一道口辿，Vol．2，N0．4，1987，P．17．
ー152－
Figure42　　AgeCohortsofResearchersatISTEC
↑”一〇〓OULU＜
mT｛〔己にCIZコ〔－Zく宗
S已?〓U已く山SU己
LO”l?≡之⊃Z
－153－
U?↑Sl↑くS”一HニーU已＜いtS?一丁lO S↑”lO〓OU HHU＜
MOST＾DV＾NCj三DDEGREEHELDI）YJSTl三CJIESEARCHE715
1－∽ふ　ー
NUh′lIIEROF
iu三SE∧RCHERS
日用GHCURTIEⅣr
E］p?YSIC＾Lr）ROCESS
皿cllEMICALPROCESS
ロoRG＾NICM＾TEIU＾LS
口NEWMATIiRIALS
廿T?EORY
コ望ree UegreeLeくe－○コST吋CR沈βrChea
2）　Therigidityofthenationalbudgetsystemwasaprimarycauseoftheshapeofthe
governmentresponse・First，thebudgetingsystemisrigidlydennedandadministeredby
theMinistryofFinance，andthesystemdoesnotaccommodatenewdiscoveriesinscience．
Second，aSareSult，mOneyCOuldnotbeobtainedfbrresearchuntilthespringof1988，
almostayearandahalfhence・ThusSTAreactedbydesignlngaprogramaroundexisting
fhcilitiesandMrrIreactedbyrecruitingfunds丘omtheprivatesectorinordertogetwork
OnareSearChcenterstarted．
3）　BothprogramsmanageparticipationbyrespeCtingtheinterestsofthenrms：
COOPerationisnotassumed．TheMulti－CoreProgramdoesnotdesignfbrnorimpose
COOperationasitsparticipantsallengageinbilateralagreementswiththehostinglaboratory．
Inthisprogram，themostpopularcoreamongnrmsrenectthestrongestcommercial
relevanceandthestrongestreputation．ISTECdoesexpectcooperation，butachievesthis
andreduceSconnictbydisperSingpotentidcompetitorsthroughoutthecenter．
4）　Thecooperativeschemeisalsoapoliticalonetogainsupportfbrfunding．For
MITI，industrialcooperationlegitimizesitsroleinbasicresearch，andfbrSTAitshows
industdalandscientincinterestindeveloplngabroadbasedprogram．
5）　Am毎Orbenefittothescienceisintheequipmentpurchaseandconcentrationof
PerSOnnel．ThisisparticularlytruefbrtheMulti－CoreProgramwheresomeofthe
PurChaseswi11providethelaboratorieswiththebestfhcilitiesintheworld．Althoughthis
PrOgrarnisdesignedfbrfiveyears，theequlPmentandopportunitiesfbrcooperationwill
COntinue，makingprogramexpirationalesssignincantissue．
6）　Bothprogramsareanaidtonrmdiversincation．Becauseofthecosts，ISTI三C
tendstoassistlargernrms，WhereassmallernrmsnndtheconditionsofMulti－Coremore
accessible．
7）　InfbrmationdiffhsionisanimportantpartofboththeMITIandSTAe汀brts．For
STAinparticular，theNewSuperconductingMaterialsForumreachesabroadaudience，
hasbeenwellreceivedbytheindustry，andcouldbeinitiatedsoonafiertheHTS
COnnrmation．It’srolewasseenasparticularlyvaluablyintheearlydaysfollowingthe
COnnrmationwhenmanynewactorswereJOlnlngandmanyrumorsofprogresswere
anoat．
8）　Participationpattemsindicatethatbothprogramsmayleadtothefbrmationofinternrmcomplementarylinkages，
butprogressis ooearlytote11．
9）　Finally，trainingisaveryimportantfhnctionofbothprograms，andisthemain
benentbeingreceivedbythecompanies．
ー155－
IftheseprogramscZLnPrOVideU．S．policymakerswithonegeneral1esson，itisthat
theJapanesesciencepolicymaのineoperateSWithmanyconstraints，andevenin”basicM
research，thetensionbetweencooperationandappropriationmustbecarefu11ymanaged．
meC力のJg乃ge〆Co肺柁〟の∫岬併用
Finally，althoughbothISTECandtheMulti－CoreprograJnSaredesignedasmultiyearactivities，
theymuststillcompetefbrfundingeverynscalyear，andmusttherefbre
mustwofkhardtomaintainpublicandpoliticalsupportshouldthe丘equencyof’
breakthroughssubside・Forexample，WiththepassingoftheinitialexcitementoverHTS，
bure批CratSfbmotherprogramsinSTAbeganchippingawayattheplannedMulti－Core
budget．Otherissues，SuChastheenvironment，mOVedintoreceivehigherpri0rityand
fhndsfbrHTSbegantoleakout．Thebudgetfbr1990tumedouttobe34％1essthan
initial1yplanned，andfbr1991，24％lessthanplannedin1991・107
Tocontinuetoreceivestrongfundingsupport，thecollectiveactivitiesneedtoshow
progress・HoweverprogressiTltheeyesofthegovemmentandthepublicisquitediffbrent
fromprogressinthemindsofthenrms・WhereastheparticipantsinISTECandMulti－
Coreareinterestedinspeedingtheadvanceofthetechnologyfbrcommercialapplication，
thedreamsofthepdblicfbrmaroundamorevagueimageofasocietynoatingonroom
temperaturesuperconductingdevices・Thus，Whereasnrmstendtoemphasizethe
penetrationofpracticalbamierstonear－termuSe，SuChascurrentlimitations，thesearenot
measureswhichthepublicreadilycomprehends・Thepublicisstimulatedbytemperature・
ProflTanakaappearswellawareofthepoliticalimportanceofincre鑑ingthecritical
temperatureofthesematerialS．WhenDr．Yamauchi，theDirectorofDivision2，nOtedat
theannualreviewmeetingthathewashopingtoachieveacriticaltemperatureof130K
throughtheirresearch，Prof．Tanaka’sresponsewas”Awfu11ylow，isn’tit？・・・Youmust
exceed150K．”108
IntheabsenceoftemperaturebreakthroughS，theprogramscangainsomernedia
attentionwithnashyannouncementsofnewdevelopments，SuChashavinggoldfish
107TheinitialfiveyearplanfortheMulti－CoreProgramca＝edforabudgetof4・116biLlionyenin
1990and3．260bHionyenin1991．TheamountsactualIyaIIocatedwere2・733billionyenin
1990and2．480b?ionyenin1991．（DatafromMurti－CoreProgrampIanningoffice，STA．
108Thisisnottoimp．ythattherearenottechnicalhopesinsuchanadvanceaswelL Prof・Tanaka
hascommentedthaド．．．thereisnodoubtthattheessenceofhightemperature
SUPerCOnductivitybecomescIearerastemperaturerises．‥L00kingBackwardandLooking
ForwardatSRL：op．cit．，P．11．
－156－
noatingaboveanewlydevelopedmagnet，OrhavingPro［Tanakafloatingaboveanewly
developedmagnet，buttheseonlyactastemporaryreprieves．Tomaintainfunding，they
willhavetoshowsomeprogress．Despitethecurrentrhetoricaboutwantingtosupport
basicresearchinJapaJl，thereiscompetitionfbrfundsandthesystemtriestonllblack
holes．
－157－
VII．SYSTEMS AND柱EyICE＿遡A＿CRES
Whenwemoveaway丘・OmPrqjectsthatarepnmarilybasedinthescience，tOthose
invoIvingthedevelopmentoftechnologies，Wemightaskwhetherthefbrmsofcooperative
R＆Dprqjectsortheirrolesininnovationchange・Inthissectionwewillexplorethis
questionthroughtheexampleofnvegovemmentpromotedR＆Dprqjectsthatincorporate
theuseOfsuperconductingmaterialS．Threeoftheprqjectsaredirectedtowardthe
developmentofspecincsuperconductingdevices：Josephsonjunctions，hightemperature
superconductingelectrondevices（HTS－ED），andatechnologyhownasaquantumnux
ParametrOn（QFP）．Theothertwoprq5ectsaretargetedtowardthedevelopmentof
PrOtOtypeSyStemteClm0logleS，Of’whichsuperconductorsplayanintegralpart・The
SyStemSteChnologleSarethesuperconductingelectricgeneratorandanadvancedversionor
ahighsensitivitysuperconductingsensorsystemknownasamagnetoencephalograph．
Whyattempttodistinguishbetweensystemsanddevices？Theseareseparated
Primari1yfbrtheanalysisofcollaboration．Thedivisionisbasedonahypothesisthatthe
diffbrenttechnicalrequirementswillleadtodiffbrentfbrmsofcollaboration，andpedlaPS
diffbrentoutcomes．Deviceswilltendtobetechnologiesthatcanbedevelopedand
appropriatedwithinanrmandwhichwilleventuallybeproducedlargelybyasinglefim．
Firmswouldliketo，andwill，havetheabilitytoappropriatetheiradvancesinthe
technology．Theparticipantswilllikelybecompetitors．Systems，bycontra5t，wi11tendto
requiretheskillsofanumberofnrmsfi・Omdif托rentsectors．Thustherearemorelikelyto
becomplemerltarylinkagesbetweenthesenrms，withftwercompetitivebarriersto
COllaborationthaninthedeviceprograms．Thusaquestionthatwillbeconsideredinthis
SeCtionishowpolicyandmanagemerltdirectedtowardsystemsanddevicesdi汀ers，and
howbothdiffbrfiomthatofscience．
Thesenveprogramspresentuswitharangeoftechnologicalandorganizational
Variety．TheyrepresenttechnologiesinwhichJapanwaSClearlytryingtocatchuptothe
intemationallead，anddevicesinwhichitmaywellbetheleader．Theyrepresentdiscreet
devices，Smallsystems，andlargesystems．Andtheyrepresentprojectsdirectedundernve
diffbrentpartsoftheJapanesebureaucracy．Howmighttheseandothervariablesafftctthe
PerfbrmanceoftheR＆D？Thiswillbeexploredinthediscussionbelow．
－158－
BriefIntroductionofthe Programs
Befbrediscusslngtheroleandmanagementofthegovemmentprograms，Iwill
giveabriefintroductiontotheprograms，thetechnologies，andreasonsfbrpursuing
development．
Jo∫甲力∫間J〟れClのJl
ThenrstofthedevicecenteredprQjectstobestartedwastheJosephsonJunCtion
Prqjectwhichgotunderwayin1981．Thisresearchisonepartofamuchlargerprogramto
developafuturegenerationofsupercomputer，theKagakuGUutsuyoKosokukeiKeisan
Shisulemu，Whichwas丘IndedthroughMITI’sIjrgeScaleNatiorlalPrqjectsomce．The
OVerallgoalofthesupercomputerprogramwastodevelopanintegratedcomputersystem
thatwouldmeetthehighspeedcomputationalneedsofscierlCe．Theseneedswould
includedataprocessingofsatelliteimages，Plasmasimulationfbrnuclearfusion，numerical
Weatheranalysis，aerOdynamicsimulationsfbraircraft，andmolecularsdence．
TheprogramwasinitiatedinOctoberof1981andwasscheduledfbr9yearswitha
totalbudgetofabout23billionyen．Althoughofncial6guresfbrtheJosephsonjunction
POrtionoftheprQjectwerenotreleased，SOurCeSindicatethatitwasontheorderof250－
300miHionyenperyear，OraboutlO％oftheoverallprQjeCtbudget．
Primarytechnicalthemesinthisprogmmwerel）thedevelopmentofhighspeed
devicesthatcanexceedtheperfbrmanceofcurrentsilicon－basedsemiconductors，2）the
developmentofparallelprocessingsystems，arld3）thedevelopmentofparallelprocessing
SOftware．TheJosephsonjunctionswereselectedasoneofthreetechnologiesthatmight
PrOVidehigherperfbrmancethroughhigherspeeds．
InadditiontotheJosephsonjunction，PrOgramreSearChersinvestigatedHigh
ElectronMobilityTransistor（IIEMT）devicesandGaliumArsenideFieldEfftctTransistor
（GaAsFET）devices．Allofthesedevicesareofinterestbecausetheyprovidethe
POSSibilityofprocessinginfbrmationatveryhighspeedswithlowenergylosses．Ofthe
three，theJosephsonjunctionappearstooffbrthebeststand－aloneperfbrmanceaSShown
inFigure44．Howthisisdoneisbrienyintroducedbelow．
AsmostobserverSOftechnologyareaware，COmPuterSPrOCeSSinfbrmation
digitally．Theessenceofthisdigitalprocessingisabinarycode，aSeriesofonesand
ー159－
（spuOUの∽OU畳む∈FP≡UljS
一2
10　　　1　　　10
2　　　　　　　4
10
PowerDissipation（MicroWatts）
Figure44　　PerfbrmanceofVariousComputerSwitchingDevices
（Ba5edonFigure2inYasutsuguTakeda，”ProspeCtSforSuperCOnducting
Electronics，”FirsthtemationalSymposiumonSuperconductivity，August
28－31，1988，Nagoya，Japan．）
ZerOS，Whichthecomputermustgroupandprocessto representtheinfbmationthatwe
desire．Thefhsterthecomputercanprocesstheseonesandzeros，thefhstefOur
infbrmationcanbemanipulated．
Inthecomputer，theseonesandzerosarerepresentedbydiffbrentlevelsof
resistanceinasemiconductor．Eachtimeavoltageisapplied，theselevelswi11change．
Thusthespeedatwhichthesemiconductorcanswitchbetweenthesetwostatesisan
importantfhctordeterminingofthecomputingpowerofthecomputer．Wewouldliketo
PrOCeSSaSmanyOf－thesebinarybitsofinfbrmationaSPOSSible．
TheJosephsonjunctionisattractiveasatechnologicaloptionbecauseofthe
theoreticalpossibilitiesofl）increasingthespeedoftheswitchand2）decreasingthe
distancebetweenswitchesthroughwhichasignalmusttravel．Firstlet’sexaminethis
CharacteristicofswitchirlgSPeed．
ー160－
TheJosephsonjunctionworksbytakingadvantageofaneffbctnrstproposedby
BrianJosephsonwhenhewasagraduatestudentattheUniversityofCambridgein1962．
Josephsontheorizedthatitwaspossibleforacurrentofsuperconductingelectronpairsto
tunnelthroughaninsulatinglayerseparatingtwosuperCOnductorswhilemaintainingthe
phasecoherenceofthepairs，wavefunctionsonbothSidesoftheinsulator・Forthiswork
JosephsonreceivedtheNobelprizein1973．
Ineffbct，JosephsonpredictedthatasuperCOnductiIlgCurrentCOuldpassthroughan
insulatorwithouttheneedofavoltagetodrivethiscurrent．Thiseffbctis，however，Very
sensitivetomagneticneldsandasmallmagneticneldcancausethejunctiontobreak
down，Creatingavoltageacrosstheinsulatinglayer．Theswitchbetweenthepresenceor
absenceofavoltage，Whichoccursontheorderofafbwpicoseconds（tri11ionthsofa
SeCOnd），mnbeusedtorepresentthebinarylandOstatesusedbythecomputer．
Theswitchesmustthenbeintegratedintoasystemfbrthephenomenatobeof－
PraCticaluseinacomputer，andthisiswhereasecondtheoreticaladvantageofthis
technologyarises．Inconventionalcomputer，SOmeWhereontheorderof40％ofthecycle
timeisestimatedtobelost丘omwiringdelays．109Butastheelectronicsignalitselfis
alreadytraveliIlgnearthespeedoflight，thechallengeisindecreaSingthedistancebetween
theswitchingdevices．Today’sfhstestsemiconductorcomputers，fbrexample，OPerateOn
thescaleofnanoseconds．Aslightcanonlytravelaboutafbotinananosecond，thismeans
thatatremendousamountorsignalmanlPulationmustoccuroveraveryshortspace．
Computersthatwouldopefate伝Sterthanananosecorld，WOuldhavetobeonlyafbw
Centimetersonaside，Oraboutthesizeofateacup．110
However，reCallthatthesemiconductordevicesachievetheireffbctbyvarying
resistances．Thismeansthatwasteheatisgeneratedintheswitchingprocess．Iftoomany
OfLtheseswitchesarepackedtoocloselytogether，theemittedheatisenoughtocausethe
SWitchestomalfunctionortomelt．BecauseaJosephsoncomputerwouldrelyonentirely
difftrentswitchingphenomena，thelevelofwasteheatgenerationwouldbemuchlower．
In1980，JuriMatisooestimatedthataJosephsoncomputerwouldhaveoperatingvoltages
thatweresmallerbyafhctorofl，000andcurrentssmallerbyafhctoroflOwhen
COmparedwithsemiconductingcomputer．1111もusthelevelofwasteheatisfburtimes
109HisaoHayakawa，”JosephsonComputerTechnology：Eb幽型，March1986，PP．46－
62（48）．
110RandySimonandAndrewSmith．塾幽⊆1旦［蔓，NewYork：PlenumPress，1988，P．177．
111JuriMatisoo，”TheSuperconductingComputer：塾麺嘘但ら如蜘lMay1980，PP．38－53
（47）．
－161－
lowerthanthatofsemiconductordevices，allowingforamuchdenserpackagingofthe
SWitchesandhenceahighersystemspeed．
Finally，inadditiontotheseprincipaladvantagesofspeedandlowheatgeneration，
JosephsonjunctionsprovideotheradvantageSthatarisefromitssuperconducting
PrOPerty．112Striplinesandsuperconductinggroundplanesinthechipallowthe
transmissionofhigh丘equencysignalsatminimallossordistortion－areSultthatis
dimculttoachieveinsemiconductorcircuits．Secondly，becauseSuperCOnductorsare
insensitivetoimpuritiesandcrystalimperfbctions，SumCientunifbrmitycanbeachieved，at
leastintheory，tOallowthefhbricationof－Josephsondevicesonthescaleofanentirewafbr
orinthreedimensions．
G′′J／トロ仙川〃〃Jげ！仕り’バハ川里廿n用
TheQuantumFluxParametronisaswitchingdevicewhichhasthetheoretical
POSSibilityofsigni貢cantlyincreasirlgthespeedandpowerofcomputerswellbeyondthe
Perfbrmanceofbothsemiconductorteclm010giesandJosephsonjunctions．Thedevice
PrOVidesfbrveryfhstswitchingtimes，Ontheorderofapicosecond，andverylowpCWer
dissipation，amilliontimeslowerthansiliconsemiconductors，Whichcouldbothcontribute
toachievingcomputerswithTeraFlopspeeds．113Acomparisonoftheswitchingtimeand
powerdissipationofthisdeviceisalsoshowninFigure44．
TheQFPisbasicallyacircuitthatiscomposedoftwinJosephsonjunctionsand
twoexcitinginductancesshuntedbyaloadinductance．114ThisisshowninFigure45．
ThetrappingofthequantumnuXinoneortheotheroftheseloopsrepresentsthelogical
StateSOfthecircuit．Thisdesignallowssignalstobeprocessedwithoutphysicalcontact
Withthesurroundingmedium．
InadditiontothespeedandpowerdissipationadvantagesovertheJosephson
junction，theQFPcanbedesignedasathree－terminaldevicethroughtheuseOfcoupling
inductors，andthecircuitcanamplifysignalsthroughalatchingaction．Thismakesthe
QFPappropriatefbrbothpipe－1ineandparallelcornputerarchitecturesthatwouldprovidea
Veryfhstprocessorsystem．
112日isaoHayakawa，P・47・
113”ChodendoSu－Pa－konniMichi．”址魅吐旦型旦迫辿，September29，1990．
114EiichiGoto，et、aJ．．臼堅虚む垣星型蜃gpぷ堅辿虹ユ旦生地虫迫y，Singapore：WorldScientific，
1988，P．Vii．
－162－
Figure45　　SchematicoftheQuantumFluxParamatron
（FromYasutsuguTakeda，”ProspeCtSforSuperCOnducting
Electronics，”FirsthtemationalSymposlumOnSuperconductivity，August
28－31，1988，Nagoya，Japan．）
ガ7了一gJecけOJlかevice∫
WhenMITIpetitionedtheMinistryofFinancefbrfundstoinitiateR＆Dprograms
inhightemperatureSuPerCOnductivity，itdidsowithtwoagendas．Thenrstwastoprovide
fundstoISTECtosupportitsresearchinthefundamentaldevelopmentofthematerial．
Thesecondwastosupportaprqjectwhichwouldimmediatelylookfbrdeviceapplications
Ofthesenewmaterials・Itisthissecondprqject，termedtheHigh－Temperature
SuperconductingElectronDevice（HTS－ED）Prqject，thatisdescribedhere．
TheIiTS－EDprqjectinvoIvessixnrmsandtheETL，andhasaprqiectedbudgetof
25biHionoveritsplannedlO－yearlifb（1988－1997）．
Theoveral1teclmicalgoalofthisprqiectistosearchfbranddevelopsignal
PrOCeSSingdevicesuslngthenewhightemperaturematerials．Thesixprqjectseventually
Selectedaretwoproximityeffbctdevices－aneldefftcttypeandachargeeffbcttype；tWO
－163胃
SuperCOnductorbasedevices－alow－energyirtiectiontypeandahigh－energyiIづectiontype；
andtwo”new－functional”devices－Singleelectrontunnelingandlocalizedstate
tunneling．115
Intheproximityefrbctdevices，theelectronpairswhichgiveriseto
superconductivityareusedasthecarrier．Thesourceanddrainaremade丘omtheHTS
materialswithasemiconductingmaterial1ayeredinbetween．Intheneldefrbctdesign，an
electricneldinducedbythegatevoltagecontroIsthecurrentofelectronpairs・Inthecharge
iIづectiondesign，quaSi－ParticlesareiIづectedintothegatesemiconductortochangethegap－
WidthwhichcontroIstheelectron－PalrCurrent．
Inthesuperconductingbasedevices，thequasl－Particlesirdectedbyanemitterare
usedasthecarriers．Inthelowenergydesign，theinjectionenergyisapproximatelyequal
tothebarrierheightbetweentheemitterandbase，Whichprovidestheadvantageoflow
POWerCOnSumption．Inthehighenergydesign，theiIづectionenergyisseveraltimeslarger
thanthatofthebarrierheight，mandabal1isticeffbctisexpectedtosubstantiallyimprove
gateemciency．
Finallytherearethetwonew－functionaldevices．Thesingleelectrontransistor，Or
SET，takesadvantageofaverythinsuperconductor－insulator－SuPerCOnductorstructureto
createasecondary－quantummaCrOSCOPiceffbctsimilartotheJosephsoneffbct・TwoSETs
WOuldbecombinedtomakeathreeterminaldevice．Thelocalizedstatetunnelingdevice
reliesonthefbrmationofvari0usenergylevelsintheinsulator．Quasi－Particlesinjected
丘omthesourcewilljumptothelocalizedstatewhenthegatevoltageisappliedandwill
jumptothedrainwhenthevoltageisremoved．Asnorelaxationlossexistsinthegate
Channel，thisdevicehasahighertheoreticalspeed．
∫岬erCO乃血C血ggJgCJ肺iケG鉗〝融〝
Inalandwhere99．7％ofthepetroleum，95％ofthenaturalgas，and90％ofthe
COalisimported，andwherethegovernmentisfhcingincreaSingresistancetothe
implementationofitsplantoincreasenuclearpowergenerationby100％in10years，the
emcientuseofenergyisanissueofcontinuingpolicypri0rity．
Aggravatingthelackofenergyresourcesistheincreasinggrowthinenergy
demand，particularlyelectricenergy．Duringthedecadefbllowingthel9730ilcrisis，
115ThedescriptionoftheHTSdevicesdrawsheavilyonaprogramoverviewprovidedinTadashi
lkeda，～lntroductionofHigh－TemperatureSuperconductivityElectronDevicesProcess：’
Extendedabstractsofthe8thSymposiumonFutureEIectronDevices，October30－31，1989，PP・
237－240．
－164－
energydemandinJaI氾nWaSeSSentiallynat，WithanaverageannualincreaseofO．1％．
However，duringthissameperiod，electricityconsumptionincreasedanaverageof2．8％
Peryear．Since1983，theincreaseinelectricityconsumptionhascontinuedtoincrease
Steadily，reaChing5％peryearatthetimeofthestartoftheSuperGMprqjectin1987．In
thisyear，Japan’selectricpowerplantshadacapacityof163GM，PrOducing640TWhor
electddty．
ThesuperconductinggeneIatOrOfrbmoflepOSSibilityof－improvingtheemciencyor
thegenerationofelectricitythroughreducedlossesinthegenerator’selectromagnetic
SyStem．
TheSuperconductingElectricPowerGeneratorprogram，knownasSuper－GM，is
thelatestandlargestofaseriesofgovemmentandutilitysponsoredprqjectstodevelopa
SuPerCOnductingelectricpowersystem．Theprimarygoalofthisprqjectistodevelopand
demonstrateprototype superconductingelectricgeneratorsystemswhichwouldberatedat
apoweroutputof70MVA，Withtheexpectationofcontinueddevelopmentofa200kVA
PrOtOtyPetOfbllowtheprQject’scompletion．
TheprqjectisbeingfundedbythegovemmentthroughtheNewEnergyand
IndustryDevelopmentOrganization（NEDO），fbraneightyearperiodwithaplanned
budgetof25billionyen．
Howdoesthesuperconductinggeneratorwork？
Inconventionalgenerators，thecopperistypicallyusedintheconductorsandiron
COreSareemPloyedtogeneratethemagneticnux．Howevercopperhasafiniteresistivity，
evenwhencooledtoverylowtemperatures，andthislimitsthecurrentdensityofelectricity
transmission（about8A血m2）．IntheSuperGMpr亘iect，thesecopperwindingswi11be
replacedbysuperconductingNiobiumTitaniumnlamentswhichoffbrtheattractionof
highercurrentdensity（Jc＝102－103A血m2），highercritica用elds，andwithoutcores，
CanprOducemuchhighermagneticnuxdensitiesthanthoseofthesaturationma訂Ietization，
Bs，Offtrromagneticmaterials．
InuslngSuPerCOnductors，itisestimatedthatthegeneratinglosswillbereducedby
60％asaresultofthedisappearanceoftheneldwindinglossandthereductionof
mechanicalandstraylosses．
However，theabsolutevalueoftheimprovementisnotlarge．Conventional
gerleratOrShaveachievedemciencylevelsor98．7％，SOa60％reductioninlosswould
OnlybringaO．78％absoluteincreaseinemciency．GiventhelargesiZeOfutility
generators，thissmal1improvementisstillestimatedtosaveabout600millio勅earinal
GWplant．Forthenationalsystemasawhole，aOnePerCentSavingsisroughlyequivalent
tothepoweroutputofalGWpowerstation．
胃165－
Nonetheless，eVenadvocatesofthesystemwi11admitthattheemciencygainsare
notinthemselvessumcientreasontodevelopthesuperconductinggenerator．AsK．
AiyamaofMITI’sElectrotechnicalLEboratoryhaspointedout，”Eveniftheir（generators）
SC－ri2ation（”superconductoriZation”）couldreducetheselossesbyhalf，theincentivesfbr
theirSC一ri2ntioncannotbeveryhighonlywiththelossreduction．Thenewfunctionsor
theadvanCedperfbrmancesofthesuperconductingapparatusinthesystemare
desired…．Ml16
Someofthesebenentstothecostperfbrmanceofthegeneratorwillstemfiom
greatersystemstability，Smallersize，andreducedweight．Superconductingpower
systemswithlongdistancetraJISmissionlinescanprovideincreaLSedstabilitywhichleadsto
irlCreaSedtransmisSioncapacity・Forexample，a40％increaseinsystemstabilitycanlead
toa40％increaseintransmiSsioncapacity．Thisisbecausethecapacityofthetransmission
lineisnotdeterminedbyathermallimit，butbysystemstability．Inpracticeitisestimated
thatal0－60％savingsintransmissionfhcilitiescanbeachieved．117
Secondly，thesmallersizemadepossiblebytheuseofsuperconductivitywi11
reducethemanufhcturingcostofthesystembyabout10％，eVengiventhehighercostsof
theNbTinlaments．Andthirdly，thegeneratoritselfisexpectedtobe40％1ighterthan
conventionalgenerators．Advocatesadmit，however，thatthesavingsmaybeoffbetbythe
COmPlexityofthedesigns．
Thelong－termgOalofproponentsofthistechnology，however，doesnotendwith
gerleratOrdevelopment，butenvisionsacompleteelectricitytransmissionsystemwith
SuPerCOnductingcomponents．Thiswouldmeantheuseofsuperconductingmaterialsin
thetransmissionline，thetrzmsfbrmers，andthearmatureorthegenerator．
Whatutilitieswouldliketodoisbothincreasetheutilizationfhctoroftheir
equipmentandtoreducethelossesinoperation．Theaverageutilizationfhctorwas45％
（76％nuclear，41％thermal，and24％hydraulic）in1987．Fortheninem毎Orutilities
（accountingfbr87％ofthenation’selectricitysupply）Aiyamaestimatesthatthelossrate，
（de丘nedas（1－electricitysoldhlectricitygenerated）＊100）was9．6％．Heestimatesthatthe
absolutevalueofthislosscanbereducedby4％withafu11ysuperconductingsystem．118
116K．Aiyama，”AppIicationforSuperconductivitytoPowerSystems，＃presentedatthe2nd
lnternationalSymposiumonSuperconductivity（tSS’89），November14－17，1989，Tsukuba，
Japan，PP．1035－1040．
117K・Aiyama，OP・Cit．
118K．Aiyama．op・Cit．
ー166－
However，thesecomponentsoperatewithaltematingcurrentsratherthanthedirect
CurrentSWhichTnSSthroughtherotor，andthestateofaltematingcurrentsuperconducting
Wireisstillrelativelyprimitive．
Throughafu11ysuperconductingsystem，theunitcapacitiesoftheapparatusinthe
SyStemareanticipatedtoincrea5ebothaspowercapacitiesareincreasedandasthe
mechanicalortransportconstraintsarerelieved．Higherpowerdensitycables，fbr
example，WOuldincreasethetransmissioncapacityofthesystem．haddition，themore
COmPaCtSizeofthesuperconductingapparatusinthesystemisarguedtobeattractivefbr
CrOWdedareas，WheretheroomfbrnewtransfbrmersandcontroIstationsisextremely
limited．
∫〟クビrCO乃血C血g5’ど71∫Or
TheSuperconductingSensorprQjectisdirectedatthedevelopmentofanadvanced
magneticimagingsystem，knownasamagnetoencephalograph，fbrthediagnosisandstudy
Ofthehumanbrain・Throughanetworkofextremelysensitivesensors，theplanisto
developaprototypesystemthatcanfbllowthepathsofneuralnerveimpulses．
UndertheauspicesoftheKeyTeclm0logyCenter，aprQjectwasinitiatedattheend
Ofnscalyear1989whichwasaimedatthedevelopmentofsensortechnologythatexploited
thepropertiesofsuperconductivity．TheSuperCOnductingSensorhboratory（SSL）was
fbrmallyopenedonMarch23，1990，andisplannedfbroperationuntiltheendofMarch
1996・Thetotalbudgetfbrtheprogramis5．7billionyen，70％ofwhichisprovidedbythe
KeyTechnologyCenterand30％ofwhichisprovidedbytheparticipatingfirms．Unlike
theotherprogramsreviewedhere，theKeyTeclm010gyCenterdoesnotprovideresearch
grantstoexistingorgani2ations，butinvestsinanindependentlyincorporatedresearch
COrpOration．
Themagneticimagingsystemusessensors，knownasSQUIDs（Superconducting
QuantumInterfbrenceDevices），thatcanmeasureextremelytinymagneticneldchanges．
SQUIDshavebeenusedinarangeofapplicationssuchasingeophysics－in
magnetotellurics，rOCkmagnetismtosearch，fbrexample，fbroredeposits，and
Paleomagnetism；ingravitywavedetectors；andinbiomagnetism－tOdetecteye
movements，neldsgeneratedbytheheartandbrain，eyemOVementS，andnerveimpulses．
AlthoughthenrstsinglechannelSQUIDdevicesformagnetoencephalographywere
developedin1976byBiomagneticTechnologiesInc．oftheU．S．，itwasnotuntilthemid－
1980’sthatnrmsinJapantookasignincantinterestinitsdevelopment．
ー167胃
Howdoesthiswork？SQUIDsareessential1ysuperconductingloopsthattake
advantageofnuxquantizationtofunctionasmagneticsensors・FirstconsidertheSQUID
asasuperconductingringthatservesasastoragedevicefbrmagneticnux・Weaklinks
mostoneninthefbrmofJosephsonjunctions，arebuiltintothisringtoallowthelevelof
magneticnuxtochange・Now，Physicstellusthatthismagneticnuxintheringcanonly
takeondiscreetnuxqtlanta，SOdiscreetlevelsofcurrentnowintheringtomaintainthe
appropriatelevelofnuxwhentheringisplacedinamagneticneld・
Whenamagneticneldisappliedtothering，aCurrentisinducedwhichtriesto
opposeanychangeinnuxlevel・However，Whenthiscurrentexceedsthevaluewhichthe
JosephsonJunctioncanmanage，theweaklinktemporarilyfhils，allowingadditional
magneticnuxintothering．Afterallowingthenuxquantaintothering，thcJosephson
junctioncanresumenormaloperation．
Tomakethisasensitivemagneticsensor，thecurrenttha用owsthroughtheweak
linkismeasuredbyusingaftedbackcurrentthatjustcancelsthecurrentinducedbythe
magneticneld．Thismakesitpossibletodeterminethestrengthofthemagneticneldat
levelsontheorderorathousandthofanuxquantumsmallerthanthatstoredintheSQUID
dng．
Inpractice，theSQUIDsareusedbythemagnetoencephalographtotakeimagesof
thebodyinspecinclocationsandatspecinctimes．Withtheearlydevicesthiswas
accomplishedbytakingmeasurementsserial1yoversmallintervalsoftime・Asaresultthe
datagatheringcouldtakehourstocomplete，bywhichtimethemetabolicconditionsofthe
patientscouldbequitedifftrent．Currentdevicescommonlyusetwosensorclusterstoget
symmetriCalmeasurementsofthetwohalVesofthebrain．hstate－0手the－artdevices，eaCh
oftheseclustershasaboutsevenchannelseachwhichtakethemagneticmeasurements・
Toincreasetheaccuracyoftheimagingtheandtoshortentimerequiredtotakeanimage，
OneWOuldthusdesireagreaternumberofsensorstopickupthemagneticmovements，and
thiswouldrequiremorechannels．
Insummary，theoverallpurposeof’thisSuperconductingSensorprQjectisto
developamagneticimagingdevicethatwouldbefhrmoreaccuratethancurrentequipment，
andwhichwouldeventuallyallowtheimagingoftheprocessesofinformationmanagement
withinthebrain．
－168－
DimensionsofComparison
Whomotivatedtheproject
Inourearlierdiscussionofscience－basedprqjectsinHTS，WeeXaminedthe
questionofprqjectfbrmationandfbundthatthegovernmentispoorlysetupto
accommodatethefundingoranunexpectedbreakthroughinscience．MITIwasnotseento
jumpintothelead，butwasproddedbytheindustryandthescientinccommunityandits
abilitytodirectnewfundstothisactivitywaslargelyrestrictedbytherigidityofthe
goverrunentfundingprocess．TheonlyagencyirlWhichitappearsthatthebureaucrats
tooktheleadwaSSTA．Buttheirresponseseemedtobeasmuchtoprotecttheirturfasit
WaStOPrOmOtethescience．Theinitialpolicyleadwasvaried．
However，thiswasanexceptioningovemmentpromotedcooperativeR＆DaSit
WaSinresponsetoamajor，unanticipatedeventinscience．Thecasesinthissectionare
moretypicaloftheprqjectfbrmationprocess．Again，theprincipalquestionsarewhotakes
thelead，howarethetechnologiesidentined，andhowaretheprogramsfbrmed．
Theprincipalthesisofthissectionisthatrelativeteclm010giCaladvanceisan
importantdeterminantofthechanginggovemmentroleinresearchanddevelopmeIlt．
AlthoughpartofthechangeinthegoverTment’sroleisbecauseofthegreaterstrengthof
thenrms，StrOngnrmSCanStillexistinstagrlantmarkets．Itisthespeed，SCale，COmPlexity
anduncertaintyoftechnologiCalchangewhichmorestronglyinnuenceshowthe
governmentwillrespond．
WhenJapan1aggedthewest，thetargetswereclearandthesettingofaresearch
agendarelativelystraightfbrward：targetthewest．However，WhenJapancatchesupthe
targetsdisappearandwhentechnologyisadvancingrapidlyonabroadrangeof丘onts，
uncertaintygreatlyincreasesaboutwhichoptionarebestorwhichevenexist．AsMITI
bureaucratsrotatetheirpositionseverytwoyears，Oflentoverydiffbrentpartsofthe
Ministry，aCCumulatingmeaningfu1technicalexpertiseisimpossible．
Asaconsequence，MITIhastoincreasinglydrawonabroadernetofoutside
expertisefbrnewideasfbrresearch，andconsequentlydistancesitselr丘omsettingthe
technologiCalagenda．
ThesevariationsingovemmentinvoIvementcanbeseeninthenvecasesreviewed
here．InthecasesoftheJosephsonjunctionprqjectandthesuperCOnductinggenerator
Prqiect，thetargetsweregeneraIlydennedbyadvancesoverseas．Intheadvancedsen50r
Prqjectthetechnologyultimatelychosenwasthesuperconductingsensor，butthiswasonly
afleralengthystudyof’alargenumberofsensoroptions，aPrOCeSSinwhichMITIwas
－169－
principallyanObserver．SimilarlyinthecaseoftheHTSelectrondevicesprQject，MITI
solicitedproposalsfbrspecincideastopromotethisgeneraltheme・
AlthoughtheGoto－QFPprqjectfhllsunderSTAratherthanMITI，itsfbrmation
alsorenectsthesamedependenceofthebureaucracyonoutsideideaswhentheyare
Chasingthe丘ontier．
FirsttheformationoftheJosephsonjunctionprqjectandtheSuperGMprqjectwill
bedescribed，Withthisbeingfbllowedbythesuperconductingsensor，HTSelectron
devices，andtheGoto－QFPprqject・
ノ直り心′川JHJ汀症状
AlthoughtheJosephsonjunctionprq5ectwasfbrmal1ypresentedasonealtemative
fbrfhstswitchingtobeinvestigatedalongwithHighElectronMobilityTransistors
（HEMT）andGaliumArsenidesemiconductors，thetargetofthistaskwasclear：IBM・The
decisiontopursueJosephsonjunctionswasanextensionofanobsessionwithovercoming
IBMthathadbeenapartofgovemmentpolicyandcompanystrategyfbroveradecadeand
ahalfl119AndthattargetmadethedecisiontopursueJosephsonJunctiontechnoIogiesa
morestraightfbrwardonefbrMITI・AsanexampleofthepreoccupationwithIBM，While
TakumaYamamotowasPresidentofFujitsu，heannual1ygreetedhiscompany’snew
employeesbyencouragingthemtoal1worktogethertoovercomeIBM’sworlddominance・
Since1965，IBMhadbeensupportingasubst皿tialamountofresearchiTltOthe
possibilityofasuperconductingcomputerwhichwouldexploitJosephsonjunctions・Over
15years，itisestimatedthatover＄100millionwasinvestedinthisprq5ect，andatitspeak
someestimatedthatasmanyasl15to140researcherswereinvoIved．120Thenrstdirector
oftheIBMprqject，JuriMatisoo，nOtedthattheywereattractedtothistechnologybecause
ofl）theabilitytobeswitchedquicklybetweentwostates，2）thelowpowerconsumption，
and3）evidenceof”gain，”oramplincationofthesignal．121
AsIBM’sadvancesinthistechnologyweremoreappreciated，interestinJapan
begantopickupinnrmsintheearlyl970’S．Befbrethistime，Josephsonjunctionswere
COnSideredarelativelyobscurephenomenawithresearchactivitycenteredinthe
universities．TheleadingacademicresearchactivitieswerebeingdirectedbyProfbssors
119MarieAncherdochy，OP・Cit・
120RandySimonandAndrewSm托h，P・179・；ArthurRobirLSOn，－NewSuperconductorsfora
Supercomputer，”塾如，Vol．215，January1，1982；andArthurRobinson，〝lBMDrops
SuperconductingComputerProject，”旦如VoI．222，November4，1983．
121JuriMatisoo，P・41
一170　－
HaraandSuganoattheUniversityofTokyo，ProfbssorsOnoderaandOtsukaatTohoku
University，ProfbssorIriyeatKyushuUniversityandProfbssorFujisawaatOsaka
University．122
Bytheearlyl970’S，PrOgramSWereStartedatFujitsu，NTTandMITI，s
Electroteclmical1d）OratOry，withsmalleractivitiesbegunatNEC，Hitachi，andMitsubishi
ElectriC・Thisissomewhatrenectedinpatentdatawhichshowsthefirstappearanceof
PatentapPlicationsinatthistime．Patentactivitywasnot，however，VerySignificantfbrthe
SubsequentnveyearsasresearcherswereprincipallyinvoIvedineducatingthemselves
withtheteclm0logy，rePrOducingworkthathadbeenconductedatIBM．
Theninthelate－1970’S，tWOaCtivitiesbeganwhichweretoacttoacceleIate
Josephsonjunctionresearchnrms．TheMinistryofEducationhadjustcompletedathree
yearprogramwiththeresearchofJosephsonjunctionsbeingoneof－theprincipalthemes．
Theteclmologydevelopedastrongadvocateintheprogmm’sChaimlan，Prof．Haraorthe
UniversityofTokyo，Whofiltthatthetechnologywasreadyfbrindustrialdevelopment．
CitingIBM，splansandadvancesandtheprogressinunderstandingmadeinJapanoverthe
PreViousfiveyearsthroughuniversityand爪rmresearch，hearguedthatJosephson
junctionswereripefbrdevelopmentasanimportanttechnologyfbrsensingand
infbrmationprocessingapplications．ThroughhiscontactsinMITI，hebeganencouraging
nationalsupport．
In1979，MITIalsofbrmedastudygrouptoidentifywhichR＆Dshouldfbllowup
itssoontobeconcludinghighspeedcomputerprqject．Forover15years，MITIhad
SPOnSOredaseriesofcomputerhardwarearldsoftwareprognmSinthehopeofenabling
JapaneseindustrytoovertakeIBMastheinternationalleader．Theseeffbrtshad，however，
COntinual1yfhllenshortintermsofthetechnicalsuccessof－theprograms．Nonetheless，this
WaSahighpri0ritypolicyandMITIwasnotgivingup．
Fromthecombinedinnuencesof－IBM’scontinuingadvancesinJosephson
junctions，domesticprogressinunderstandingmadeintheMOEprogram，increa5ednrm
interestinpursuingthistechnology，andmostsignincantly，MITI’sstronginterestin
IBM’sinterests，itwasdecidedtobeginJosephsonjunctionworkbefbrethebeginningof
thenextlarge－SCaleprqjectwiththesupportofaHqiokinloan．Herehalfofthehndsfbr
theworkwouldbenominallyprovidedbyMITIandhalfbythenrms．Firmswhichjoined
theprogramwereMitsubishiElectriC，Fujitsu，NEC，andHitachi．
122Thesearea－sothesixprofessorschosentoheadthesixtaskareasinthe〃Superconductive
QuantumEIectronics”projectinitiatedbytheMinistryofEducationin1977．
－171胃
In1980，aMITIstudygroupadvancedaplanforthenextlargescalecomputer
R＆Dprqjectandin1981the ScientincResearchComputerPrQjectwasbomaspartofthe
newlycreatedFutureTeclm010giesfbrNextGenerationIndustriesprogram．
InpreviousMITIprQjects，Fltjitsu，Hitachi，andNモChadbeenselectedasthe
PrincipaldeveloperSOfthemainfiamecomputerprototypes，thusthematchwiththese
nrmSWaSeaSytOmake．MitsubishiElectrichadinthepastbeenassignedthetaskof
developingperipheralS，henceitsexpenenCeinmainhmeteclm010giesandintegration
WaSjudgedtobenotablyweaker．Asaresult，MitsubishiElectricwasnotinvitedtojoin
theprogramanditsgovemmentSuPPOrteXpiredwiththeendoftheHqiokinloan・
∫岬erCO乃血C血ggJeCldの秒GどれemlOr
ThedecisiontoproceedwiththeSuperGMprqject，eVOIved丘omaneadierhistory
Ofdomesticprototypedevelopmentscoupledwithadvancesoverseas．Asinthecaseofthe
Josephsonjunctionthetargetoftheactivitywasrathercleadydennedffomahistoryof
domesticprototypedevelopments，andahistoryspafkedandperpetuatedbydevelopments
OVerSeaS．Asdescribedinaneadiersection，MITI，CRIEPI，Orthecompaniesthemselves
hadbeensponsorlngSmallprototypeeffbrtssincethemid－1970’S．Thustheideahadbeen
aroundandevoIvingformanyyeaIS．
ThesepreviousMITIandCRIEPIpfqjectshadshownthatthetechnologycouldbe
developedintoaprototypeonsmallerscale，butitwasclearthatthenextgenerationof
PrOtOtype，Whichwouldbeneededfbrrelevantutility－SCaletesting，WOuldbeexpensive．
Withoutgovemmentsupportandwithoutcloseutilityparticipationfirmswerehesitantto
movedIead．
Withoneexception．In1985Hitachicompletedits50MVAprototype
SuPerCOnductinggenerator，ageneratOrbuiltoninhousesupport．Althoughtherewereno
admittedfbmdpromises丘omMITI，MITIandCRIEPIbothcloselymonitoredthiswork
aswellasprogressoverseas．AlthoughdevelopmentintheUnitedStateshadbeen
SuSpendedfbrseveralyears，GermanywaspressingaheadaswastheSovietUnion．The
prototypeadvancesshownbyHitachiaswellastheoverseasadvancesconvincedMITIto
COmmittothenextstepinthegenerator’sdevelopment．
In1985，NEDOcommissionedanengineeringconsultingnrm，Technova，tO
COnductaftasibilitystudyofthedevelopmentoflarge－SCaleprototypeSOfthe
SuPerCOnductinggenerator．Teclmovaassembledanadvisorycommitteeofindividualsin
highpositions丘omtheindustry，universities，andgovemmentlaboratoriestoidentifythe
targetstobepursued，andtogathersupportfbrtheprqject．TheprQjectwaspresidedover
胃172－
bytheDirectorofCRIEPI，Pro［EmeritusS．Yamamura，andincluded12industrial
representatives，8proftssors，8govemmentresearchers，and7丘omtheutilities．
PreciselywhichpiecesofteClmicalinsight丘omtheHitachidevelopmentfbund
theirwayintotheultimateprogramplanareunknown，butHitachibenentedfromits
anticipatorydevelopmentofthisprototypebybeingawardeda70MVAprototypedesignin
theSuperGMprqjectthatisprincipallyascaled－uPVerSionofitsearlierprototype．123
InMard11987，theadvisorycommitteecompleteditsreportwhichwasessentiallya
technicalplanfbrthedevelopmentofthenextgenerationprototype．Therecommendations
OfthereportwerefbrmallyacceptedbyMITIandfundswereapprovedfbrthenscalyear
beginninginthefbllowingmonth，Apri11987．
HerewecanseethefatenlaeOfthepolicy－makingprocess・Forfundstobe
availableinthenscalyearbeginninginApri1，theymustbeapprovedbytheMinistryof
FinanceinDecemberofthepreviousyear，andmusthavebeensubmittedbyAugust．This
meansthatthedecisiontoproceedwiththisprqjectwasactuallyincorporatedintoMITI
Plansbythespringof1986，0neyearbefbrethereleaseoftheadvisorycommitteereport．
ThepresentationinMarchof1987waslargelyafbrmality，Whichhadtobemadebefbre
thestartofnscalyearfunding，andwhichprovidedarecordoftheprocessratherthana
markerofthedecision．
TheEngineeringResearchAssociationfbrSuperCOnductingGenerationEquipment
andMaterialswasfbrmallyapprovedbyMITIonSeptember17，1987．
∫〟PerC（）乃血cri〃g∫どれ∫Or
ThesuperconductingsensorprqjecttakesMITIastepfurtherawayfiomthe
technologyselectionprocessastheoptionsweremorevariedandtheinternationaltargets
lessclear．
Theideatoinitiatesuperconductingsensorresearchprogramgerminatedinaseries
OfdiscussionsheldwithintheElectronicsIndustryPromotionAssociation．In thecaseof
thesuperconductingsensor，themotivatingorganizationwastheindustrialassociationin
SenSOrteChnology．Theassociation，Withamembershipof2060rganizations，aCtSaSa
Clearinghouseofinfbrmationandindustrialstatistics，aSPOnSOrOfsurveySandoverview
Studies，andafbrumfbrinfbrmaldiscussionsofteclm0logicalneeds．
In1985，theSensorBoardoftheAssociationbegandiscussionswiththeElectronic
MachinerySectionofMITIaboutthepossibilityofinitiatingalarge－SCaleR＆DprQjectto
123commentbyengineersatHねchiResearchLaboratory・
ー173－
advancesensorteclm0logy．TheBoardwaschairedbythenUniversityofTokyo
ProftssorShqjiTanakaaLndithadasitsmembers，repreSentatives，Primarilyatthe
DepartmentHead（Bucho）1evel，丘om120fthecountry’sm毎Orelectronicandelectric
systemmanufhcturers・124ItwasagreedthatMITIwouldassistbyprovidingfhndsfbr
surveyresearchtoidentifythevariousopportunitiesinsensortechnology・Asensor
workinggroupwasfbrmedfbrthispurposeandthesurveyaCtivitiescontinuedfbr2years・
Thegroupreportedonthenngeofareasofsensorapplications，developedaschemefbr
analyzingtheimpactofsuccessivegenerationsofsensordevelopment，andproposedfbur
areasfbrR＆D：1）intelligentpatternrecognitionsensors，2）asystemtostudythe占ensing
functionsofhumansandanimalS，3）ICsensorsfbrelectriCalmachinery，and4）a
comprehensivesensordatabase・125
Thenrsttwoofthesecandidatesweresubsequentlyselectedasthemostpromising
andtwonewworkinggroupswerefbrmed，Onefbreachoption，tOStudytheteclmical
fbasibilityofeachresearchprqjectinmoredetai1．Althoughtheintelligentsensoroption
wasratedashavinganextremelyhightechnicalpotential，italsoinvoIvedaverybroad
rangeoftechnologiesandapplications－tOObroadtoallowreadyagreementonwhich
technologiestoproposefbrprototypedevelopmentbyasingleresearchprqject・The
magneticmeasuringsystemfbrfhnctionsofthebodyalsoinvoIvedsophisticated
technologybutwasamoreclearlydennedprqject．Thusthisoptionwasselectedbythe
overseeingSensorBoardandrecommendedtoMITIastheprqjecttopromote．126
In1988，thehighprecisionmagneticmeasuringsystemwasproposedtotheKey
Teclm01ogyCenterfbrfunding．Thetechnologyofthemulti－ChannelSQUII）whichlayat
theheartofthissensorwashighlyratedbytheKTCevaluationpanel，buttherewas
COnCernOVerrelativestateofintemationaladvanceandhowfhrfbrwardaleaptheprqject
WOuldprovide．
ThusthedecisionwasdefbrredwiththeKeyTechnologyCenterevaluationboard
askingtheassociationtomorethorough1yinvestigatetheintemationalfrontier．Because
MITIwascooptedintotheprqject丘omthestart，therewaslittiedoub?hatitwouldget
funded．However，theKeyTechnologyCenterusesananonymOuSeValuationpanelwhich
124TheseelectronicandelectricsystemfirmswereFujiElectric，MitsubishiElectric，Hitachiud．，
Matsushita，NEC，OkiElectric，Shimadzu，Sharp，SumitomoElectric，Toshiba，TDK．and
YokogawaElectric．
125NihonDenshiKougyouShinkouKyoukai，塾咄蓮垣蜃旦塵卓垣建旦LTokyo：NihonDenshi
KougyouShinkouKyoukai，March1987．
126NihonDenshiKougyouShinkouKyoukai，塾堕曇り建地担塾建迫迦建吐ⅡTokyo：NihonDenshi
KougyouShinkou Kyoukai．March1988．
ー174－
islesstiedtoMITI’sandwhosefunctionistoassuretechnicalquality．Perfbrmanceofits
functionputaslightimpedanceinthetimingoftheprqiect，buttheprqjectwasalwayssafi．
WithguidancefromMITI，theMachineSystemPromotionAsS∝iationprovided
fundsfbrareviewoftheintemationalstate－Of二the－artandexperimentationtoconnrmsome
ofthemoreimportantdataonexistingsystemperfbrmance．127withthisadditional
SuPpOrtinginfbrmation，theproposalwasresubmittedandwasapprovedtobeginsometime
innscalyear1989．BecausetheKTCitselfisshortoffundstoinitiatenewprqjects，
however，Onlyasmallamountwasallocatedtoallowtheadministrativefunctionstoget
Organizedandbeginoperation．
Eightcompanieswereinthefbundinggroup，Hitachi，YokogawaElectriC，
SumitomoElectriC，ShimadZu，Daikin，SeikoElectrorlics，TakenakaKomuten，andNihon
ShinkuGijutsu．ThethreeprincipalparticipantsareHitachi，YokogawaElectriC，and
SumitomoElectriC，Whichaccountfbr66％ofthecapitalizationcontributedbythefirrns・
Toshiba，Whichhadparticipatedintheintelligentsensorworkinggroup，Petitionedlaterto
beincludedintheprqject，andwasgrantedadmissionbeginningJuneofl990・128
Forthenrstyearoftheprqiect，thelaboIatOrySPaCeWaSbeingpreparedin
Tsukuba．Intheinterim，aSmal1amountofspacewasrented丘omMITI’sElectrotechnical
IJaboratoryfbrcomputermodellingandnnalizingthedetailsoftheirresearchapproach．
〟7了－gJgC′／U月かどγたど∫
TheITrS－ElectronDevicesprqiectom汀edanevengreatertechnicaluncertaintyand
againshowsMITIfurtherremovedfiomthedetailsofprogramfbrmation．One
Characteristicwhichseparatedthisprqject丘omtheotherscoveredthereisthatattheoutset
Ortheelectrondeviceprqiect，thetechnologiesthatshouldbepromotedwerenotyet
defined．
WhileMITIwasturningitsattentiontothefbrmationofISTECduring1987，
anothergroupofscientist丘omETLandtheuniversitiesheldinfbrmaldiscussionswiththe
ElectronicsSectionofMITId）OutCreatingaprogramtosupportthedevelopmentofHTS
devices．WhereastheISTEClaboratorywouldbechargedwithfundamentalresearchand
127NihonDenshiKogyouShinkouKyoukai，KoudouSeitaiJibaKeisokuShisutemuniKansurリ
旦垣辿望止造出迎燕」虫地軸Tokyo：KikaiShisutemuShinkouKyoukai，March1990．
128BecausetheseareR＆DinvestmentprolectsratherthancontractR＆Dpro］ects，thereisa
StrOngdesireamongparticipatingfirrnsforeq血yincostsandbenefits．FirmsjoiningJateareina
POSitiontoabsorbaIHhatoccurredbetoreat冊Iecost，thatis，tO†reerideonpreviouswork，SOlate
admissionisratherrareamongKTCprograms．lnthisCaSehowever，冊Jeresearchhadbeen
initiatedsothereJeaseofinformationwasconsideredaminimaJcostwhencomparedagainstthe
advantageofhavinganothermajOrindustrialorganizationparticipateinthisprojeCt．
－175－
materialsdevelopment，theyenvisionedasecondactivitythatwouldexploreapplications．
MITIrealizedthattheywouldneedideastofbllowthenrstgenerationofNextGeneration
Teclm0logyprqjects，andwasthuseagerfbrpromlSlngSuggeStions．Thethreethemesthat
receivedthemostattentionwereHTSJosephsonjunctions，HTSdevices，andnew
devices．MITIpressedtheviewthattobeuniquethethemesshouldbebothnewanduse
HTSmaterials，andthegeneralthrustOftheprogramwasthusgeneral1ydenned．Areview
of－theinternationalstate－Oflthe－artShowedthattherewerealargenumberofpotential
options，andbyearlysummerageneralprogramoutlinewasincludedwithMITI，sbudget
PrOPOSalfbrthefbllowingyear・
FundshadbeenrequestedfromtheMOFattheeadiestpoiIltOfthebudgetarycycle，
andsobecameavailableinAprilof1988，alongwiththefundsfbrgeneralHTSresearch
goingtoISTEC．ButtheformationofISTEChadreceivedtoppri0rityamongtheMITI
staffanditstillwasnotyetclearinl987whatkindsofnTSdevicesweremostpromising．
Asaresult，Whenthefundingfbrtheprqjectwasappropriatedbeginninginnscalyear
1988，theplansfbrtheprqjecthadyettobedrawn・
Inthenrstyearofprqiect，muChofthefundingwenttotheETLtobegingeneral
HTSdeviceR＆D．Sincethetechnologicalterrainwaslargelyunknown，MITIdecidedto
letthenrmsgeneratetheideas．AcallfbrproposalswasissuedinSeptemberof1988，and
16nrmsresponded．ResearchersatETLevaluatedthetechnicalpotentialoftheideasand
MITIstaffevaluatedtheexperienceofthefirmsinthisindustry，i・e・，theirgeneral
commercialandteclmicalcapdbility，andthequalityoftheresearchersthattheywere
ofrtring．Sincethiswasresearchthatwouldrequirecreativethinking，thequalityof－the
individualsbecameparticularlyimportant．hAprilof1989，Sixprqiectsandnrmswere
OmciallyannOunCed．
Allsixofthenrmswerefromamongthosethathadbeenparticipatinginthe
ongoingFutureElectronDevices（FED）prqiect，andallwereveteransofMITInational
R＆DprqjectsincomputeHelatedtechnologies．ThenrrnsselectedandtheirFED
responsibilitieswereNECandToshibawhichproposedstackedhighdensity3－DICs，Oki
ElectricwhichproposedstackedGaAsICtechnology，SanyoElectricwhichproposed
StaCkedlarge－CaPaCity，multi一functionalICtechnology，Fltiitsuwhichproposedaresonant
tunnelinghotelectrontransistor，andHitachiwhichproposedapermeablebasetransistor．
G（）J0－9〟。乃山間FJ〟JPdr。間がrO乃
ThisprqjectisanoutlierasitfhllsunderthejurisdictionoftheSTAandis
SPOnSOredbyasystemspecincallydesignedtopromotecreativeresearch．Giventhis
一176－
setting，itfurtherillustratesthedistZLnCingoftheburcaucracywhenfrontierscienceisa
goal．
ThequantumnuxparametronwasanideanrstconceivedbyProflGotoinl954，
usingcapacitors，fbrritecorecoilsandresistorsasthebasicelements．Giventhelevelor
technologyatthattime，itwaSClearthatitwouldnotbecompetitivewiththetransistors
beingdeveloped，andthoughseveralJapanesenrmsdevelopedprototypes，theteclm010gy
WaSgenerallydroppedbytheendofthel950’S．
SeveraldecadespasseduntilDr．Gotodevelopedarenewedinterestinthisidea，
thistimecouplingthepaIametrOnwithrapidlydevelopmentJosephsonjunction
technology．Betweenl983and1985Pro［GotoandhisgraduatestudentKinFockLoe
developedthetheorybehindthedevicewiththeintegratior10fJosephsonjunctionsinl984．
HitachitookaninterestinDr．Goto’sworkandbetween1984and1986contractedwith
Dr．Gotofbrthejointdevelopmentoftheidea．Prof．GotonotedthattheHitachilaboratory
COuldprovideverysophisticatedfhbricationandtestingequlPmentWhichwouldbetoo
expensivefbrhislabatRikentopurchase．
Atabouthistime，ERATOapproachedDr．Gotoaboutleadingoneoftheirprqiects．
Initially，however，ERATOdidnotapproachProf二Gotoabouttheparametronbut
aboutdirectingaprQjectinJosephsonjunctionteclm010gieSgenerally．Henoted，atthat
time，thathehadneverconductedresearchdirectlyinJosephsonjunctionsandhadnever
Publishedinthisneld，SOherepliedthatthismightnotbesuchagoodidea．
ERATO，however，WaSnOttObeshakenoffsoeasily．ForERATO，OneOfthe
mostimportantorganizingprinciplesisthattheprqjectsaretobeledbywell－knowrl
SCientincngures．TheERATOprogramhasaSitsprqiectleadersmanyofthescientinc
eliteofthecountry，includingindividualSrumOredaSJapan’stopcandidatesfbrthenext
NobelPrize．Theirreputationandleadershiptosomeextentreplacesfbrmaltechnical
reviewsoftheprqjectsasthestandardsofevaluationarelessclearincreativescienceand
Challengetotheirleadershipundesirhble．Theimportanceofindustryasaleaderis
relativelylessprominent．
Inthisway，ERATOhopestoattracttalentedyoungpeoplewhowanttodo
researchunderthesescientists，gaintheconndenceoftheindustry，Whichisskepticalof
theunusualcharacteroftheprogram，andgainpublicvisibilitytosupporttheprogramin
general．AndtheywantedProf二Goto．SoERATOaskedwhatideahewouldliketo
PurSueundertheprogram，andheresponded，”theparametron．”
WhenERATObeganitssupportoftheparametron，thein－houseworkatHitachi
WaSSuSpendedandHitachibecameoneofthethreecentersfbrtheresearchwith
responsibilityfbrmanufhcturingprototypedevices．TheothercenterswereatUI，VAC，
－177－
locatedinChigasaki，andMitsuiZosenSystemsResearch，locatedintheTsu埼iareaof
Tokyo．
ダomの0′l∫〟椚mdワ
Whenplacedwithintheperspectiveofgeneraltheoriesaboutstatebehavior，these
nvetechnologyandsystemscasesaswellastheprevioussciencecasesshowpattems
Whichlessre且ecta”plan－rational”statethanadynamicof”reciprocalconsent．”Butthe
balanceoftheconsentshi鮎asthetechnologytargetschange．Asthetechnologymore
Clearlypressesthe丘ontier，aSitscomplexityanduncertaintyincreases，theinfluenceofthe
networkoutsideofthegovernmentgainsinimporbnce．Asthebalanceshiftstothe
丘ontier，thestateisevenlessthegeneratorofideaS，nOrisittypical1ytheleaderininitiating
theprqject．NeitherthecasesofHTSnorLTSwasittnlethatfirmslaggedtheinitiativeof
MITI．129Butthestatestillmakestheprqjectshappen．
Thedetai1softheprqjectsrenecttheoverallpri0ritiesofthestateinstitutions，and
thestateaSSistsinfbrgingthedesiredparticipationand，Ofcourse，ingatheringresources
丘omtheMinistryofFinanCe．Althoughthesizeanddiversityofthegroupsvarieswiththe
teclm0logy，animportantPOintherefbrtheiIlternationalaudienceisthatMITIisnotseento
beinstrumentalineithergeneratingtheideasorscreenlngtheoptionsunlesstheoptionsare
narrow－theydonothavetheexpertise．Insomecasesthepushisfromtheindustryand
itsassociations，insomecases丘omthenationallaboratories，andinsomecasesprofbssors
Playarole．ButMITIisnotanimportantideagenerator．
Astechnologiesbecomeincreasinglyuncertain，thegovemment’sinvoIvementwill
likelybecomeincreasinglydistaJlt，relyingmoreonextemalnetworksfbfideasarldonthe
nrmsfbrspecincproposals・ThistrendwasseenintheestablishmentoftheKey
TechnologyCenterandcanalsobeseenintheestablishmentoftheHTSElectronDevices
Prqject・MITIwillstilllooktowardthecollectivegoodandthelongterm，butthedetails
Willincreasinglybedrawn丘omtheoutside．
Fromtheperspectiveofmoreoperationalprogramfbrmation，thereareseveral
COmmOnpOintsinthefbrmationofthefburMITI－relatedprqjectswhichpointtoavery
thoroughapproadltOPlanning．First，thereistypicallyareviewoftheinternationalstateof
129ThisiscontrarytotheconclusionsgIVenbysomeotherswhohavestudiesthisissuesuchas
JohnAlicandRobertMilJer．uCommercialtechnologystrategJeSinhightemperature
SUPerCOnductivity，theU・S・A・andJaparド也鉗垣gl坦型旦且受皿受払Vol．
4，No・6，1989；andJapanTechnoIogyEvaluationCenter．避堅；j蟄堕し蜃迫建遡＿上也山
王堅幽＿旦迎星型迫由出血山越辿弧Washington：NTIS，November1989．
－178一
theart・Asalloftheseprogramsareintendedtocatchuptoorleap丘ogtheintemational
state・Of二the－art，athoroughunderstandingofwherethatstate－0手the－artisbecomesacritical
issue．Theprocessofdoingthebackgroundresearchbecomesanimportanteducational
exercisetobringtheknowledgeofthenrmsuptotheinternationalfbntier．
Second，WeCanSeethattheprocesstakesafhiramountoftime，uSuallytwoyears，
duringwhichthefbasibilitystudyisusuallyconductedandmoldedintotheprqject
proposal．
Thirdly，teClmicalguidanceisalwaysprovidedfbrbyanadvisorycommitteeIather
thanMITI．Thesecommitteesaretypicallychairedbyawellknownprofbssor，Whocan
leveragehisexpertiseandelevatedstatustohelpsettledisputes，andistypicallyattendedby
individualsfromthenationallaboratoriesand，mOStimportantly，fromthenrmsthatwill
eventuallybedoingtheR＆D．Planningisthroughacommitteeof－theinterestedteclmical
Organizations．
Timingoftheprojectinitsinnovationtimepath肩Whatkindofaleap
is this？
Aswediscussedinanearlierchapterreviewingthehistoryofcoopemtive
programs，thetargetingofprototypedevicesandsystemswaspartofaclearstrategyto
CatChupwiththewest．Inthecaseof－teclm010gydevelopment，itisnowcommonlyargued
inbothJapanandtheUnltedStatesthattheseprogramscanbecooperativebecausethey
target”precompetitive”stagesofthedevelopmentoftechnologieswhichthemselvesare
Substantial1ymoreadvancedthanresearchcurrentlyunderwayinthenrms．Theresearch，
itisargued，isthusnotappropriateandwouldservetechnologybaseneedsofallnrms．Is
thistrue？Ifnot，Whattypeofinnovationisbeingtargeted？Aretheystillinthecatch－uP
mode？Aretheyattemptingtoleapfiog？Aretheylegitimatecontributorstopublic
technologyandtosciencegenerally？
Thekeyvariableinnuencingobservationsonthisissueisthestateorthetechnology
relativetotheintemationalstandardattheoutsetoftheprqiect．WhentheindustryinJapan
Clearlylaggedthewest，thetargetwasprimari1ycatch－up．Theclosertheindustriallevelto
thewest，thegreatertheincrementofadvanceuntilweseeacaseinwhichJapanese
industrylSenhanclngitsplOneenngPOSition，nOtjustcatching－uP．Theargumentthatthe
prqjectstargetprecompetitivetechnologiesiS，however，Oflennotcorrect．
Inexaminingthenvecaseswenndthatthreearedirectedarevari0usdegreesof
leap丘ogging，OneatneWdevices，andoneatanewdeviceconcept．Noneoftheseprqjects
ー179胃
isaprecompetitive，generictedmologybaseactivitywhichsupportstheindustryasa
whole．
、Jf）∫ゼ／）力、ヾ聞J〟′汀症状
TheeadiestoftheseprogramsistheJosephsonjunctionprqjectanditsgoalwas
Cleadyoneofcatch－uP．UntilthisJosephsonjunctionprqjectwasinitiatedbyMITI，there
WaSOnlyaverylowlevelofresearch，reflectedinalowlevelofpatentapplicationsbefbre
1980，aSShowninFigure46．
Atthetime，IBMwasfbcusingitseffbrtsonlead－alloyortin－alloybasedjunctions
andthisalsobecamethefbcusoftheinitialworkinJapan．Thesematerialswerebeing
usedbecausetheywererelativelyeasytoprocess．Thesematerialsmeltattemperatures
P＾TENT＾PPuC＾rrlONSREL＾T［L）TO10SEl，lJSONjUNCTZONS．1971to1989
ハU O O O
d．　　　　　　2　　　　　　　バリ　　　　　　　8
N U m b C r O r ∧　p p l　－　C　3．．1・一i O n S
0　　　　　　　0
′O d?
・一十年一・十±〒と干．
71　72　73　　74　　75　　76　　77　　78　　79　　80　　81　82　8j
Ymr
9
00
°0
00
′n－
8
8
AT
ne
Figure46　　PatentApplicationsRelatedtoJosephsonJunctions
（YearAnnounced－Oneandahalfyearsanerapplication）
－180一
nsuMITOMOELE
閻SEiKOEPS0N
団M∧TUS仕汀A
mNEC
BMITUUl引?ELエ
ロ?汀∧C川
臼∧lST
E］FUJITSU
□NTT
1－TOT八L
below350Candarethuseasytoevaporateintonrms．However，thesematerialswerenot
durableandthestressofbeingcycledbetweennearzeroandroomtemperaturescausedthe
junctionstowarp，Crinkle，Orinsomeotherwayfhllapart．130
IBMscientistsdiscoveredthattheperfbrmanceofthesejunctionscouldbe
improvedbyuslngalloysofleadcontainingindiumandgold，andbyuslnganeVenmOre
durablesuperconductorasthebottomelectrode，niobium．Niobiumwas，however，
difnculttofbrmiIltOhighqualitynrmsasitsmeltingpointisveryhigh，2400C，andasit
quicklyabsorbsoxygen，fbrmingoxideswhichinhibitsuperconductivity・Aonepercent
increaseinoxygenleadStOaOnedegreereductioninthesuperconductingtransition
temperature・ItwasinthisperiodofleamingtomoreeffbctivelyprocessNiobiumthat
IBMdiscontinueditsprogram．
Althoughthequalitativegoalswassimplytocatch－uPwithandperhapssurpass
IBMinthisteclm0logy，nOminalperfbrmancegoalswerealsoset・Thesearesummarized
inTablel5．
Althoughthesegoalswerebeyondthestate－OfLthe－artattheoutsetoftheprqject，
theywerenotsignincantlyso．Forexample，althoughitwasknownthatideallyJosephson
junctionscouldprovideswitchingnearthelpslevel，itwouldrequiresubmicron
technologynotavailableatthetime．PerfbrmanceatlOps庖atedidnotrequiresuch
technology．Atthetime，lBMhadannouncedthatithadachievedswitchingtimesof6
PICOSeCOnds，withswitchingdelaysfbrtheJJinterfbrometersinthelOto15picosecond
range．131ThiswasaboutlOtimesthespeedofsemiconductordevicesatthetime．IBM
WaSalsowellintoitsresearchona4Kcachememoryalthoughithadnotyetbeen
SuCCeSSfhllyconstnlCted．
BothofthesystemsprQjectsalsooffbrexamplesoftechnologicalleap丘ogging
morethanoftechnology－base，PreCOmPetitiveR＆D．
∫岬erCOn血C血ggJeCfの妙Gどれgmわr
IftheSuperGMprqjectandtheintendedfbllow－uPareCOmPleted，the
SuperCOnductinggeneratortobedevelopedbytheMITIprqjectswouldbeoneofthelarger
OPeratingprototypesintheworldtodate．Butitsnoveltyandnoteworthinesswere
Primari1yinitsscale，developmentcostandsuccessfu1demonstrationratherthaninits
targetingofnewtechnology．
130MuchofthethisdiscussionontheproblemsIBMhadwiththeleadandtinjunctionsisfrom
SimonandSmith，PP．118－119．
131JuriMatisoo，P・亜・
胃181－
Tdble15．PerfbrmanceTargetsfbrtheThreeHighSpeedDevices
JJDevice HEMTDevice GaAsFET
Operating Liquidhelium Liquidnitrogen Room
temperature temperature temperature temPerature
LogicDevices
htegmtion Above3Kgateガとhip
Delaytime BelowlOps庖ate Below30
ps庖融e
MemoryDevices
Integmtion
Accesstime
Above16Kbitskhip
BelowlOns
Theprototypedevelopmentisdividedintotwostages・Theinitialtargetsofthe
prqjectarethree70MVAprototypegenerators・Oneprototypeisafhst－reaCtiongenerator，
andtheothertwoareslow－reaCtiondesigns．Experiencegainedinthedevelopmentof
thesedesignsisthenplannedtobeincorporatedintoasingle200MVAfhstandslow
reactiongeneratorwhichwouldbedevelopedinstagetwo，afler1996・
Thedevelopmentofthe70MVAand200MVAgeneratorswillplacetheJapanese
developersamongtheintemationalleadersinthisteclm0logy・Forexampleinratedsize，
theywi110nlybeexceededbytheSovietprqjectandalargeprototypebeingdevelopedin
GermanybyKWU－Siemens，aSShownearlierinFigure3・3・Moreimportantly，byprQject
completiontheseJapanesenrmswillbemuchclosertocommercialcapabilityinthis
teclm0logythantheyaretoday．
However，intermsoftheteclm0logy，theprogramisnottargetingm可Oradvances．
LetuseXaminethesuperconductingrotorsasaneXamPle．Inalloftheprototypes，the
SuperCOnductingwiresplannedfbruseareNbTialloysratherthanNbSn3・NiTihasbeen
theailoyofchoiceforallprevioussuperconductinggeneratorprototypesandhasprovena
reliableoptioninthemagneticneldrangeanticipated．NbSn3，however，iscapableof
ー182－
Operatinginevenhighermagneticnelds，Whichwouldallowformorecompactgenerator
designs・However，NbSn3hasprovenadimcultmaterialtoconstructintomagnetssothe
Certaintyoftheirsuccessfuluseifmuchlower・Thusintheprogram，NbSn3isbein
researchedseparatelyfiomtheprototypedevelopmentwithoutanticiIntionofitsnearterm
use．Asnotedinthereportoftheadvisorycommittee：”WehavedecidedtouseNbTialloy
asthesuperconductormaterialsinceitiseasilyftasibleatthepresentstateofthe
technology．”132AppendixCshowsmoregraphicallytheperfbrmanceimprovements
targetedfr0thesuperconductors．
Asecondmajorcomponentchallengeisindevelopingareliablere餌gerationsystem
Ofthescaleneeded・Theprqjectwilltargettheuseof’aliquidheliumpool－COOliIlgmethod
Withthefieldwindingscooledbythethermosiphoningofliquidheliumin丘eeconvection・
ThiswasalsothedesignusedbyHitachiinthedevelopmentoftheirin－house50MVA
PrOtOtyPe・
Athirdchallengeisintheactualproductionofelectricitywiththeprototypes．Al1
SyStemSdevelopedinJapn，andal1m毎OrSyStemSdevelopedintemational1yhaveoperated
usingreactivepower．ElectricityisfbdintothegeneIatOrtOaChieverotation．Witheachof’
the70MVAprototypes，thephasewi11beadjustedsothatactivepowerwi11begenerated，
muchasitwouldbeincommercialoperation．
Overall，however，theadvancesrequiredofthesystemareincremental・
ComponentswhichneedtobeimprovedareshowninAppendixB．Thisincremental
Characteroftheoveralladvanceisrenectedinastatementoftheadvisoryreportwhich
notesthatthecurrentprototypeswerechosenのtobeatechrl010gythatisfbasiblewithinthe
rangeofthescaleofthesystemspresentlyinexistence．”133
Afutureadvancewhichwouldbeamajorstepfbrwardfbrthesystemwouldbethe
useofsuperconductingmaterialsnotonlyintherotorbutalsointhestatorandinthe
POWertranSmissioncomponents．Asdescribedearlier，Whereastherotorisstationaryarld
OPerateSwithaDCcurrent，thestatorspinsatveryhighspeedsandoperateswithanAC
Current．ThedevelopmentofsuperCOnductingmaterialsthancanoperateWithhighfieldsin
anACcurrentisstillinastageofbenchscaleexperimentsandfhr丘omreadyfbrlarge
scaledemonstration．
Thusthetechnologynecessaryfbra”fu11y’’superconductinggenerator，Onewith
bothasuperconductingrotorandstator，andthetechnologiesneededfbrsuperCOnducting
132S・YamamuTa，〃FeasibilityStudyonSuperconductingMachineryandMaterialsTechnology
RelatedtoElectricaIPowerGeneration（Summary）：Tokyo：NewEnergyDeveIopment
Organization，March1987，P．5．
133S．Yamamura，P・13．
－183－
transfbrmersandtransmissionsystemarebeingresearchedassecondarytasksattachedto
theprogram．The鑓meistrueofhightemperatureSuperCOnductingmaterials．Asthe
plansforSuperGMwereinrealityconcludedbefbretheconnrmationofthehigh
temperaturephenoInena，thesematerialswerenotconsideredindrawinguptheprogram．
Giventhehighlevelofinterestinthepossibilitiesofthisnewdiscovery，however，both
MITIandthemanufhcturerswerelookingfbrwaystocharLnelmoneytotheirdevelopment．
Theprqjectprovidedaconvenientvdlicleasallofthenationsm毎OrCableandwire
manufhcturersanddevelopersofsuperconductingwireswerealreadyoncontract・
SuperconductingACtraJISfbrmersdevelopedtodatearestillmuchsmallerthan
WOuldbeneededfbrcommerCialoperation．Thelargestisa500kVAlaboratorymodel
developedin1987byToshibawiththesupportoftheCentralResearchInstituteofthe
ElectricPowerIndustry（CRIEPI）．ThesecondlargesttransfbrmerdevelopedisalOO
kVAdesigndevelopedbyamanufhcturerinFrance．
UnliketheapplicationofDCwirestomagnets，ACsuperconductordevelopment
hashadamuchshorterhistory．ThenrstexpedmeTltSWererePOrtedinFmnce，andtodate
mostofthedevelopmenthascenteredthereandinJapan．ExperimentsintheUnitedStates
general1y丘乙Zledoutinthe1970’swhenalackofnewgeneratorplantordersdampened
enthusiasmfbrworkonnewtransmissiontechnology．
TheproblemwithACwires，isthatunlikesuperconductingDCwires，lossesdo
OCCur．Thesinusoidalsignalcreatesahysterisislossinthewirewhichgenerateswaste
heat．ThisheatcanraisethetemperatureofthewireaboveitssuperCOnductingcritical
temperature，CauSlngittoloseitssuperconductingcapibility．
Tominimizethisloss，thediameterofthewiresmustbekeptextremelysmal1．
Currentdesignsusewirewithsubmicrondiameter，Whichcompareswith10－100micron
whichwouldbeusedfbrDCcables．
Forpowertransmission，DCtransmissionisalsopossible，butthecostsarestill
Veryhighwithcurrenttechnology．Unlikegeneratorswhichhaveasmallsurfhceto
VOlumeratio，tranSmissioncablehavealargesurfhcetovolumeratio，Whichmakescooling
muchmoreexpensive．Aiyamaestimatesthatthesecablesonlyappeartobeeconomical1y
attractiveatcapacitiesofseveralGVA，Whichisfhrbeyondthesizeofcurrentsystems．
Evenwiththereducedrefhgerationrequirementofrecentlydevelopedhightemperature
SuPerCOnductingmaterials，thebreakevenpointisnear3GVA．134
Giventheimportanceofovercomingthisbarriertoestablishingafully
SuPerCOnductingsystem，itisabitofamysterythatthistopicdoesnotreceivegreater
134K・Aiyama・OP・CR．
－184－
fundingpriority・Butthiscanbepartlyunderstoodbyrealizingthataprincipalgoalofthe
PrOgramisnottechnical．
Technologically，theSuperGMprQjectmayseemtolacklusterbecauseofthe
absenceofam痴Ortargetedtechnicalleaporintentionstoovercomem毎OrteChnical
obstacles．Howeveritislikelythatitwastheabsenceofmajortargetedadvancesthat
enabledtheactivity．
ThisisnotatechnologybaSeaCtivitybutonedirectedatdemonstratingaprototype
ofanewtechnologytoaconservativeindustry－theelectricutilities．Electricitygenerators
fbrlargepowerplantsareextremelycapitalintensiveinvestments，Withcostsontheorder
ofhundredsofmillionsofdollars．
Becauseofthesehighcosts，itisimportantthatthegeneratorsrunaSClosetofu11
CaPaCityaspossible．Anyfhiluresinthegeneratingsystemwouldresultinadirectlossof
POWerreVenue，increasedcostsbecauseoftheneedtoactivatelessemcientsupplemental
POWerequipment，andcustomercomplaintsstemmingfiomanydisruptionsthatmight
OCCur．Theindustryboaststhatinl0years，With6，000generatorsoperating，therehave
Onlybeenfburgeneratoraccidentsthathavecausedtheunanticipatedshut－downofa
generatingsystem．
Thuselectricpowernrmsheavilyweighthedownsiderisksagainstany
perfbrmanceincreases，andinthiscasesomearguedthattheincreaseswereonly
incremental．ThernaingoaloftheSuperGMprqjectistoassuagetheseconcernSby
displayingthereliabilityofasystemopeIatingnearcommercialconditions．Aprimarygoal
isco－OPtationoftheuser．
∫岬ど・CO′l血C血ggen∫Or
TheSuperconductingSensorprQjectisaimedatleapfiogglngthecurrentlevelof
technologyinthewestemcountries．Currently，7channelsisthelargestnumberemployed
byasinglesensorsystemonacommercialmagnetoenphalograph．Thisisamachirle
developedbyBiomagneticTechnologiesInc．，BTi，（Mode1607）whichhasbeenavailable
Onthemarketsince1984．InJuneofl989，Seimensannouncedthedevelopmentofa31
ChannelSQUIDsystem（KRENICON），andinAugust，BTiannouncedthedevelopmentof
a37channelprototype．InJapan，however，manufhcturersarestillonlyoffbringsingle
－185－
Channeldevicesandatthestartofthisprqiect，theproposingcommitteeassertedthatno
firmhadstartedsignincantdevelopmentofamultichannelsystem．135
TheSuperconductingSensorprQjectistargetedtoleap丘ogtheseoverseas
developmentsbydevelopingaprototype200Channeldevice．Whereascurrentdevicesare
Verytimeconsumingtouse，SOmetimesrequlnnghoursfbrafullscan，duringwhichtime
metabolicconditionscanchaけge，the200channeldeviceisexpeCtedtoproviderealtime
imagingoftheoperationofthebrain．Throughanoperatingversionorthissystemitis
hopedthatresearcherswillbeabletofbllowthecomplexpathsofelectromagneticsignals
withinthebrainandbrainstem，withtheultimatedesireofunderstandinghowthebrain
PrOCeSSeSinfbrmation．
Inaddition，PrOgramPrOmOterSnOtethatultimatelythistypeofultrasensitive
imagingtechnologycanbeextendedtoarangeofotherapplicationsthatincludematerials
research，theanalysisofhighspeedelectronicprocessessuchaSthosethatoccurin
SuPerCOmPuterS，andthesearchfbrnaturalresources．Further，knowledgegainedabout
thewaythemindprocessesinfbrmationisexpectedtohaveasignincantimpacton
infbrmationnetworkdesignsandcomputerarchitectures．Thespin－Ofreffbct，inother
WOrds，isarguedtobebroad．
Whilethisleap丘ogmayallowanlndamentalbreakthroughinsciencethroughits
eventualapplication，thesystemitself－primarilyinvoIvesasetof－moreincrementaltechnical
Challengesandachallengeinintegratingalloftheimprovementsthatneedtobemade－a
Chal1engetosystemsdevelopmentandintegration．136
Principaltechnicalchal1engesthathavebeerlidentinedbytheprogramplannersare
summarizedonTable16．
SomeoftheprincipalchallengesamorlgthesehavebeensummarizedbyprogIam
directorMitsuoAiasthefbllowing：137
1）　Systemteclm0logy－IntegratingalloftheneededcomponentdevelopmentSSOthat
thesignalsreceivedcanbetranslatedintousefhlinfbrmation．Thiswouldincludethe
abilitytoprobefbrsourcesofelectromagneticsignaliTlagiverlneldaTldthedevelopment
Ofimagemanagementalgorithms．ThiswouldalsoinvoIvethedevelopmentofasystem
135　NihonDenshiKogyouShinkouKyoukai，拉幽旦軸捻逗但む垣垣虚坦旦h迦塑型旦旦迅迦些些
⊆h些Sa KenkHUU Houkoト、生地．
136Thjspointisemphasizedheavi，ylntheproposa．oftheeva，uatingcommittee・Seefor
exampletheaboveNihonDenshiKygyouShinkouKyoukaireport．
137MitsuoAi，’’ChodendoSensaKenkyujotoKenkyuGaiyo：DenshiKogyoGeppo，∨0l．32，
No．6，1990，PP．12－16．
ー186一
Table16．　MagnetoencephalographSystemElementalTeclm010gies138
Teclm010gicalElements ResearchTopics
HARDWAR五
SQUIDnuxmeasurement
Inputcoil
NoisesuppressionequlPment
CⅣOStat
Heliumrefhgeration
Magneticshield
Multi－ChaLnnel；Highintegration；
Highreliability
Highabilitytosuppressnoise；nlm
Lowtemperatureconstruction
Reducedconsumptionofhelium；
Adaptedfbrthehumanbody
Compact；highreliability；
highemciency；lownoise
Increasedshieldeffbctiveness；
Hightemperaturesuperconductor
COnStruCtion
SOFrWARE
Electronicmodelof
orthcbrain
MagneticsourceanalysIS
algodthm
Imagemanagement
dgorithm
Imagedisplayalgorithm
Higherprecision
Multiplemagneticsources；
highlyemcientalgorithms
Threeサdimensionalimage
′nlree－dimensionalmovement
display
thatcouldautomaticallycalibratetheSQUIDs，autOmaticallya亘justthecircuitsfbrthe
Particularcomputation，andsensephantomimages・
138NihonDenshiKogyouShinkouKyoukai，
⊆垣旦蔓旦＿麺型如上些』旦上地P．5．
Koudou SeitaiJiba Keisoku Shisutemu niKansuru
胃187－
2）　SQUIDtechnology－ImprovingthereliabilityandsensitivityoftheSQUIDelement
andtheunifbrmity，aSWellastheabilitytotestfbrthesecharacteristics．
3）　ShieldingandRefhgerationtechnology－Reducingthelevelofmagneticnoise丘om
l／1，000commonintoday’smachinestol／100，000，Prefbrablywiththeuseofashield
WhichemployshightempeIatureSuPerCOnductingmaterialS．Here，magnetOmeterSare
beinglnVeStigatedtoreplacethegradiometersusedcurrently．Althoughthereareanumber
oflaboratoriesinJapanworkingonthisteclm0logy，reSearChmuststillovercomeproblems
suchasthatarisingbecausethevibrationsoftrappedfluxwithinthematerialcreatesalevel
Ofnoiseofthesameorderofmagnitudeasthattryingtobeachievedbytheshield．
Inaddition，thereisaneedtodevelopasmall，highemciency，lownoisemethodof
SupPlyingliquidheliumrefhgerationtotheelements．
Asonecangather丘omthetableandthepri0rities，theprqjectwillrequire
incrementaladvancesonanumberoftechnologicalfionts，amdtheintegrationofthese
advancesintoasystem．Howeverthesystembutisnotrevolutionaryinanyofits
COmpOnentdevelopments．
ガ73gJeC什0花かgVice∫
TheHTSElectronDevicesPrQjectcanalsobeviewedasastate－Of二the－artaCtivity
thatwillgivethedevelopersasubstantialleadinthetechnology．Noneof－theseconceptsis
entirelynewaseadlWaSbeingexploredwithtraditionalLTSmaterialsbefbre1987．The
ChargeiI肩ectionproximityeffbctdevicebeingdevelopedbyToshibawasinitiallydeveloped
atIBM，thesingleelectrontunnelingdeviceatNECwasdevelopedatBellLaboratories，
andthelow－energyinjection－typeSuPerCOnductorbasedeviceatSanyowasinitially
developedbyIBMandatFujitsu．
EvenasLTSdevices，however，theseconceptswereatthestate－Of・the－artOf
electronicsresearch，SOthenoveltyofapplyiIlgHTSmaterialswasinseeingwhether
OXidematerialscouldalsobemanipulatedtoprovidethesamephenomena．Thetargetsare
legitimateleapfiogbeyondexistingtechnologiesandrenectstheleadingintemational
positionoftheindustryinJapan．
Goわ一￠〟dnJ〟〝げJJはPdr。机の花的
TheQFPisaleapbeyondtheJosephsonjunctioninbothitsperfbrmance
Characteristicsandthephysicalphenomenauponwhichitrelies．Asdescribedearlier，both
theswitchingspeedsandheatlosscharacteristicsoftheQFPcouldsignincantlyoutperfbrm
ー188－
bothexistingtechnologyandtheJosephsonjunction・Inaddition，theuseofmagneticflux
quantaaStheswitchingmediumisamajordeparture丘omcurrentpractice．
Astherewasverylittleworkinthistechnologyoccurringelsewhereintheworld，
theworkofthisprqjectispioneering．Althoughnotrevolutionaryinitscontributiontoa
generic，teClm0logybase，OrtOafhndamentallynewtheoryofaphysicalphenomena，the
QFPisanovelideawhichataminimumwarrzmtsbeinglabelledasignincanttechnological
l飽p．
rlピ！雨用＝諒甘バ壷刷刷ー
FromtheabovediscussionoftheR＆Dgoalswecouldseethatthecasesofthe
Josephsonjunctionandthesuperconductinggeneratorrenectonlyincrementaladvancesin
technologyperfbrmance，WiththesuperconductingsensorandHTS－SCcasestargetinga
greaterleap丘og．Innoneofthesecases，includingtheparametron，doweseeresearch
OPPOrtunitiesthataretruly”technologybase’’and”precompetitive．”
Organizationoftheproject
Howdonrmscooperate？Dofirmscooperate？
Inthissectionournveprogramswillbeanaiyzedtoprovidesomeinsightintothese
questiorlS．IfitiscoilaborativeR＆DthatpolicyistryingtomimicintheUnitedStates，
thenweshouldnrstbeconndent，thatcollaborationisindeedoccurringandsecond，have
SOmeunderstandingofthecircumstancesunderwhichcollaborationismostproductive．
ToconductthisanalysISWeWillrelyuponfburtypesofinfbrmation：the
OrganiZationoftheprqjects，PatentaPPlications，Publications，andinfbrmationprovidedin
interviews．Byexaminingtheorganizationoftheprograms，WeCanaddressquestions
SuChasthefbllowing．Istheprogramorganizedtoencourageortorelyuponcooperation？
Aretheresearchers丘omdi鮪rentnrmsgroupedtogethertoconductresearch？Aretheir
researchtasksinterdependent？ArethereentiCementsfbrcooperationororganizational
PrOCedureswhichpromotecollaborationorcommunication？
Inadditiontotheorganizationalstructure，WeCanalsolookatindicatorssuchas
jointpatentapplicationsandcoauthorshipstoseeifthereisconnrmingevidenceof
COllaborationintheoutputoftheprograms．
Inallofthesecases，afnrmativeevidenceofcolld）Orationamongcompetitorswas
generallylacking．Thereisonlylimitedevidenceofprogramsorganizedinwaysthat
WOuldinvoIvethemlXlngOfpersonnel丘omdiffbrentnrms．Wherecooperationdoesseem
－189－
toexist，itisplaJlnedbetweenparticipantswithcomplementaryinterests，inverticalor
diagonallinkages・Eveninthesecaseshowever，theworkonbothsidesofthislinkageis
largelyautonomous．Betweennrmsinthesamesector，Wenndstrongtendenciestoward
insulationbetweennrmsandastructurewhichemphasizescompetitionratherthan
COOPeration．Cooperationbetweencompetitors，Wewi11see，isverydimcult．
Iwi11beginwiththethreedevicecasesandthenproceedtothesystemscaseS．
J…’り血潮ノ〃／！ピバ聞
TheHighSpeedComputingSystemprqiectfbllowstheorganizationalstructureof
alloftheprqjectsunderMITI’sFutureTechologiesfbrNextGenerationIndustries
PrOgram．ThenmlSarenOminal1ycollectedintoaresearchassociationcreatedfbrthe
Prqject，theScientincComputerResearchAssociation．Asinthecaseofallofthese
aSSOCiationstheDirector，Mr．Miyazawa，hascomefiomMITIthroughanamakLLのri．
Theomceisresponsiblefbrtheadministrative丘nctionsoftheprQjectandisstaffbdwith
PerSOnneldispatched丘omeachofthecompanies．
Withtheparticipantsadministrativelyhousedunderoneroof，doesthismeanthe
nrmsarecollaboratingintheirR＆D？TheomcialpositionoftheAssociationisthatthey
are，andtheassociationprefbrsnottodiscussthedivisionofresponsibilitiesandlabor．In
theirannualtechnicalreports，fbrexample，theworkofthefimlSislumpedtogetherina
SynthesizeddescriptionofprogressinJosephsonjunctions．”Weencouragecooperation，”
isthefbrmalresponse．
Asalloftheparticipantswerecleadylaggingtheintemationalstandard，therewere
emcierlCiestobegainedincollectiflgandsharirlgPublicinfbrmationtoimprovethisstatus．
Interviewswithresearchersineachofthelaboratoriesindicatesthattherewassome
exchangeoftechnicalinfbrmationabouttheirdevicedevelopmentearlyintheprogram，but
theexchangebecamemoreformalizedandlessopenastheprogramadvanced．Eachnrm
WaSCaPal）le，ultimately，Ofdevelopingandmarketingthedeviceonitsown，andeach
COmPanyWOuldbeacompetitofinthematketplace．Thustheultimateorganizationneeded
toconsiderthesesomewhatconnictingincentivestoshareandcompete．
Sodespitetheomcialresponse，thisprqjectseemstobeaclassicexampleofa
”cooperative’’programinwhichtherewasfhrmoreinsulationbetweenthenrmsthan
COOPeration・Thethreemanufhcturers，Hitachi，Fujitsu，andNECwereeachgivenseparate
tasks・NECwasprimari1yresponsiblefordevelopingthememorydeviceandHitachiand
Fujitsuwereasslgnedlogicdevices・Eachworkedinitsownlaboratorywithitsownstaff．
－190－
E氾minationofpublicationandpatentdatasupportsthisconclusion・Accessingthe
JOISdatabaseofpublicationsfbrarticlesonJosephsonjunctionresearchpublishedby
eachofthesefirmsinJapanese，WeCanSeeaSteadyincreasefiom1985to1989inFigure
47．Noneofthesepublications，however，WereWrittenjointlybetweenanyofthesethree
firms，Orbetweenthesenrmsandothernrms・Theonlycasesofcooperativepublication
werebetweenanrmanditsamliate，FujitsuandFujitsuCommunicationS（2cases），and
betweenanrmandaprograminwhichitisparticipating，HitachiandtheGotoParametron
Prqject（lcase）．
Patentapplicationdatarevealsasimi1arpattemofresearchinsulation．Figure48．
showsthedatesorpatentapplicationsbythethreenrms，AlSTandMitsubishiElectriC．
WeseeasigninmntincreaseinapplicationstwoyearsafterthestartoftheMITIprogram
amongal1participants．Thereare，however，nOCaSeSOfjointapplicationSbetweenthe
threenrms，andor11yonecasebetweenoneofthenrms，Hitachi，arldtheElectrotechnical
labomtory．
Until1986，allofthepatentsdevelopedbypr亘iectfundswerenominal1ylOO％
OWnedbythegovernment．Asaresult，allofthepatentswereassignedtoAISTsoitis
dimcultonthesurfhcetoknowwhetherthepre－1986paterltSWeredevelopedcooperatively
betweennrms．Anexaminationofthesepatentapplicationsandtheirauthorship，however，
revealsthatallcanbeattributedtoresearchersatMITI’sElectrotechnica11aboratory，nOttO
thenrms．Patentapplicationssince1986wouldshowjointiI融itutionalownershipif－this
OCCurred，andthedatadonotprovideevidenceofasinglecase．
Thengureshows，however，thatthenrms，Ontheirown，becamequiteactivein
Submittingapplicationsindependentlyoftheprogram・Whythisheavypatentactivity
OutSideorbutnotwithintheprogram？Thereasonseemstostemffomanoperational
’’gentlemen’sagreement”whichallowsthenrmstoevadethegovemmentownershipissue
byfbrmallysubmittingpatentsindependently，eVenifonecould，OnCloseinspection，make
acasethatthepaterltCameOutOfthegovemmentprqject．Thiswouldpreservethe
irlCentivetodevelopandapplyfbrpatentsamongthenmlSthatwoulddisappeariftheyhad
togiveownershipentirelytothegovernment．
Thuswherethereislittleneedtocooperate，nrmSWillnotdosojustbecausethey
areina”cooperative’R＆Dprogram．Eachofthenrmshadtheequipmentthatitneeded
andenoughin－houseexpertise．Theincentivestocooperateastheygainedgreaterin－house
Capabilitywerefbw．
－191－
JりubllCのl加工jnrlnTCOl
J05［PHSONJL：TiC’TICNR［LへTCOPU！luC′＼T：OT（5（．TIムpaTle父川YTll［TllREE「lRitS
36　　　　　　　　　　37　　　　　　　　　　　SS S9　　　　　　　　　　90
YCV
Figure47　JoumalArticlesRelatedtoJosephsonJunctions
J中仙仰山瓶用
lOSEP?50NJUNCTIONP．＼TENTJ＼PPuCATlONS8Y rOURSEL［CTED「ZRHS′＼ND＾lST
0　　　　　∞
N u m LU　′，r
72　7］　74　75　　75　77　73　79　30　31　3コ　の　餌　35
Yca′
…醐冊拙腿裏罰闘鳳凰門ドl
?由田薗－＝
留り蘭
ロトl汀SUB【5川こし上
題NEC
田Il汀′＼C川
口FUJ汀SU
■′＼ほ丁
Figure48　　PatentApplicationsRelatedtoJosephsonJunctionsbyMmProgram
Pa正id匹mb
－192一
Finally，inadditiontothesenrmstherewasthegovemmentlaboratory．ETLhad
thelongesthistoryinthisteclm0logyinJapan・Wasitasignincantnurturingfbrcefbrthe
firms？AlthoughETLprovidedthetestingandevaluationexpertisefbrtheprogrzm，inthe
WayOfresearch，ETLalsofblloweditsownpath．ResearchersatETLwerefieetoaddress
al1elementsofaJosephsonjunctioncomputeranddidso・Theresultsoftheseseparate
researchactivitiesarereI氾rtedseI氾rately丘omtheworkofthenrmsintheprogram’sfinal
teclmicalreport，139withthesynthesisofthesedevelopmentscomingtogetherinETL’s
developmentofafburchip”Josephsoncomputer”in1989．Thiswasdeveloped
iIldependently丘omtheactivitiesofthenrms．
TheoneimportantcontributionthatETLdidmaketotheactivitiesofthenrmswa5
itstestingofnewmaterialsfbrtheJosephsonjunction，Niobiumbasedalloysratherthan
lead，Whichsomefbelwasthemostimpo血ttechnicaladvanceintheprqject．Thiswillbe
describedinmoredetailwhendiscussingtheoutcomeoftheprogram．
Outsideoftheprogram，PatentaPplicationsreveallittle additionalevidenceofffee
COOPerationbetweenCompetingnrms．Insteadtheapplicationsntoneoftwopatterns．
Eitherthejointapplicationwassubmittedbyakeiretsuafnliatednrm，Oritwassubmitted
jointlywithanindividualoutsideofthenrm，typicalIyauniversityprofbssor，Orwitha
govemmentlaboratory．Hitachi，Ltd．，Whichhadthegreatestnumberandvarietyofjoint
applications，COOPeratedwitheithergoverrmentresearchorganiZations，12cases，Orwith
oneofitsamliates：HitachiEngineering（3cases），HitachiMicroelectronics（3cases），and
HitachiCable（lmse）．Theotherfirmswithjointapplications，Whichtotaledll，
COOPeratedwithindividualS，100fthe11，0ragOVernmentlaboratory，OneCaSe．Themost
activeherewas?NipponKokanwhichhad27patentapplicationswithTokaiUniversityand
Pror．Tachikawa．SharpandToshibafbllowedinrankwithtwojointapplicationseach．
Gof0－9〟β乃山間F山JPdrd〝lerr（）乃
FollowingastructureverytypicalofprqjectsintheERATOprogram，theQFP
prqiectisorganizedaroundthreeprimaryresearchthemes，Withresearchinthreediffbrent
locations．Thethreethemesarefundamentalproperties，magneticshielding，andcomputer
architecture．ThenrstthemeisbeingresearchedinspacerentedfiomtheHitachiCentml
ResearchhboratoryinKunitachi，OntheoutskirtsofwestemTokyo．Someoftheir
PrincipaltasksaredevelopingtheQFPasalogicalandmemoryelementandasamagnetic
139DenshiGijutsuSogoKenkyuj0．0ataKo　′OGilutsuKenl uKaihatsu．Ka akuGiiutsu9
KosokuKeisanShisutemun建地虹旦上如上旦！互生＿堕I垣＿出し臼⊇避建aiRonbunshul，Tsukuba：Denshi
Gi］utsuSogoKenkyujo，JunelggO．
ー193一
nuxsensor，anddesigningtheQFPfbrthree－dimensionalintegrationasacomputer
element・ThesecondthemeisbeingpursuedinspaceatthelaboratoryofULVAC，Japan
inChigasaki，Withthegroupfocussingontheremovaloftrappednuxoidsinthemagnetic
Shieldsandthedevelopmentofanemcientandreliの1eheliumliquiner．Thethirdgroup
WaSinitiallylocatedatMitsuiZosenSystemsResearchinTokyo，Withtheirresearch
targetingnewcomputerarchitecturebasedontheQFPandwritingthesoftware．
TheQFPprQjectwouldatnrstseemlikeadifrirentfbrmofprqjectwhichwouldbe
moreamenabletocooperation．RecallthatthefbrmalgoaloftheERATOprogramisto
raisecreativemindsbyallowingthemtoconductresearchinadvancedneldsofscience．
Formal1yresearchersthatparticipatemustleavetheirpositionsintheirhomeinstitutions
andthenhavetheirsalariespaidfbrbyERATO．Theindependenceoftheindividualis
furtheremphasizedinintellectualpropertypolicywithhalfoftheownershiporpatents
goingtotheindividual，nOttheirhomenrm，andhalftoERATO’sparentorganization，the
ResearchandDevelopmentCorporationofJapan（JRDC）．Furthermore，inanominal
attempttopreventasingle丘mfi・Omdominatingtheprogrzm，amaXimumoftwo
researchersarepermittedtoparticipateintheprogram丘omthesameorganization．And
nnally，inanattempttoreducetheinnuenceofinternalpeerpressure，theresearchmustbe
COnductedinatleastthreedifTbrentlocations，withapreftrenceearlyintheprogramthat
theselocationsbegeographicallydistributedIatherthanconcentrated．Withthisempha5is
Ontheindividualandsafbguardsagainstcompanypressure，OnemightexpeCtthatifnot
tnleCOllaboration，atleasta丘eemixingofresearcherswouldbeobserved，withtheir
PurSuitofcreativesciencebeingtheprimaryinnuenceonbehavior．
Inspiteofalloftheseadministrativesafbgtnrdsandthenear－basicstateofthe
researchinthisarea，Wefindthatthecompetitiveinterestsofthenrmsagainbecomevery
innuentialintheactualoperationoftheprogram．
FromHitachi’SperSPeCtive，itwouldliketoexplorethefbasibilityofthepractical
useofthisdevicefbreventualcommercialapplication．FromERATO’sperspective，
althoughtheadvanceofthecreativescienceistheprincipalstatedgoal，theywouldliketo
Showthattheirresearchisalsoofpracticalsignincance，Whichmeansthattheywouldlike
nrmstotakeaninterestinfurtherdevelopingthetechnology．AndfbrProf．Goto’s
PerSPeCtive，hewouldliketobothseethedevelopmentofhisideabeasuccessandseeits
eventualapplication．Thustherewereincentivesamongal1threepartiestogivepri0rityto
thepracticaldevelopmentofthistechnology，withthenominalgoalsoffbstering
independentandcreativemindstakingalowerpositioninactualpri0rity．
Midwaythroughtheprogram，thethreefhcilitieswereconsolidatedintoeffbctively
twosites，withthecomputerarchitecturetaskatMitsuiZosenSystemsResearchmovingto
－194一
Hitachi’sCentralResearchIJaboratory・Itwasstillaseparatehboratory，butmuchcloser
inproximity・Prof二GotoechoedacommentaIsomadebyotherERATOleaders，Which
WaSthatitismuchmorepracticalfbrtheadvzmceandmanagementoftheprogramtohave、
thefhcilitycloselylocatedratherthandispersedastheERATOomceinitiallydesired．
Secondly，amOngthenveresearchstaffdrawnfromthenrms，allremainedwiththe
hboratoryassociatedwiththeirhomeinstitutions．Thenrmsarenatural1ymoreinterested
inkeepingtheirownstaffattheirresearchfhcilitywhichisperhapsonereasonwhythis
PrOgram，1ikemanyERATOprograms，hastoreachouttoffeshuniversitygraduatesand
fbreignresearcherstocompletetheresearchteam．Fiveoftheresearchersare丘om
universitiesinJapanash・eShgraduatesor丘omresearchposts，andnvewereffom
OVerSeaSinstitutions，Primarilyacademic．
Thirdly，althoughthelimitoftwodispatchedresearchersisenfbrcedinthis
PrOgramandgeneral1yobeyedinERATO，therearewaysofaddingapresenceifdesired．
Thegroupleaderisnotcountedasresearchstaffandthisleaderistypical1yassignedbythe
hostinglaboratory・SotheHitachisitegroupleaderwasfromHitachi，theULVACgroup
leaderwas丘omULVACandtheMitsuisitegroupleaderwasfromMitsui．Inaddition，
thejobofteclmicaladvisorisalsonotaresearchstafrposition，andthisindividualhasalso
beendispatchedfiomHitachi．Andnnally，althoughnotapparentinthisprqject，anrmCan
dispatchresearcherstoERATOatitsownexpenSe，arldtheseresearchersarenotcounted
asERATOsbft
Theneteffbctisthatthesepracticalincentivesandresponsesinorganizationcome
todetermineactualoperation．Thetasksarecoordinatedbetweenthethreeresearchthemes，
butthereseemslittlerelianceoninter－COreCOOPeration．Thenrmsparticipatefbrthe
perceivedvalueofthetechnologyandorganizetotrytoexploitthattednology，Withthe
morefbrmalgoalsofencouragingcreativityandenlightenmenttertiaryintheirpri0rities．
Althoughdiffbrentinfbrm，ERATObecomesavehiclefbrthedevelopmentofanadvanced
ideawithcommercialpromise，andtheopportunitytoappropriatethatpromise，hasa
StrOnginnuenceontheparticipationofnrmsandtheoperationoftheprqject．
月73－￡Jecrr（フJlかeVice∫
Perhapsanevengreatertestortheprecompetitivecooperationargumentisthe
OrganizationoftheHTSElectronDevicesprqject．Herethefbrmalorganizationisagain
COllectiveandthedistance丘omthemarketofthetechnologiesbeingdevelopedprobably
quitebr．
－195胃
Administrationoftheprq3cctwasplacedintheexistingResearchandDevelopment
AssociationfbrFutureElectronDeviceswhichwasestablishedin1981toadministertwo
PrqjectsinMITI’snewBasicTechnologiesfbrNextGenerationIndustriesProgram．Two
committeeswerefbrmedtoguidetheprqject，OneaSteeringcommittee，theOverall
InvestigationandSurveyCommittee，COnSistingof2ETLresearchers，4profbssors，and
researchers丘omthe6companleS．AsecondwastheTechnologyPredictionCommitteefbr
SuperconductingI）evices，COmPOSedofanETLresearcher，4profbssors，andlOcompany
researchers．Thepurposeofthislattercommitteewastoassurethattheprqjectincorporates
infbrmationd）OutneWdevelopmentsinHTSdevicesabroad．
Theresearchtasks，however，Werelargelyinsulated．Aseachofthedevicesis
discreet，eaChcaIlbeentirelydevelopedandappropriatedwithinthescaleofasinglenrms．
Asaresult，eVenthoughtheseteclm010giesarefhr丘omcommercialiZation，theyarenot
beingdevelopedcollaboratively．Thenrmsandtheirassignedresponsibilitiesareshownin
Table17．
Fortheresearchersinthenrms，thefundsagaiflPrOVidefbrthepurcha5eOf
additionalrescarchequipmentandprovidelegitimacytopursuethisgeneralthemewithin
thenrm．Althoughthenrmsareassignedonetheme丘omtheprqject，eaChnrmisonits
OWnPurSuingparallelandrelatedthemeswithentirelyin－housesupport．Thegovernment
Prqiectisthusleveragedfbrthesupportofabroaderrangeofresearch，andthisresearch
moregenerallyleadsthe爪rmstoactascompetitorsratherthancooperators．
Sincetheactualpromiseofthesedeviceswasgeneral1yunclear，theprogramwa5
designedtoaccommodatechangesattheendofeachofthetwointerimevaluationperiods．
Goalscouldberedenned，teChnologiescouldbechanged，andfirmscouldbedroppedor
added．Anerthenrstgeneralreviewoftheinlate－1990，thesixnrmskeptthesame
thematicthrusts，buttwoadditionalnmlSWhichproposedintriguingideaswereadded．
SumitomoElectricjoinedtheprogramtopursueasuperconductingchannel－type3－terminal
device，andMitsubishiElectricjoinedtodevelopamicro－VaCuumtubewitha
SuPerCOnductingemitter．Asintheoriginalsixnrms，thesetwonrmshadalsobeen
P3LrticipatinginthefirstgeneIationelectrondeviceprqjects．SumitomoElectrichadbeen
WOrkingonasuperlatticeMODFET，andMitsubishionanimagesignalprocessorusing
StaCkedlarge－CapaCity，multi－functionalICteclm0logy．
胃196－
Table17・　TechnicalresponsibilitiesofnrmsparticipatingintheHTS－EDprQject
Ultra－HighSpeedDeviceTechnologies
Pro恵mityE仔bctDcvices
a）　Fieldefrとctdesign
b）　Chargeipjectiondesign
SuperconductorBaseDevices
C）　Low－energyirtjectiondesign
d）　High－energyiIづectiondesign
New－FunctionalDeviceTeclm0logy
SingleElectronTunIleling
LocalizedStateTunneling
も麗宣Ⅱ迫里血踵
Hitachi，Ltd．
Toshiba
SanyO
OkiElectriC
NEC
f可itsu
Thecasesofthesystemsprqjectswouldseemtopresentadditionalopportunities
fbrcooperationbecauseofthevarietyofskillsneededfbrdevelopment．Butisthiswhat
weobserve？
InboththecasesoftheSuperGMprqjectandthesuperconductingsensorprQject，
theorganizatior10ftheactivityshowsaclearcomplementarityofintereststhatarisesfiom
thevarietyofskillsneededtodevelopsystemprototypes．Theorganizationalsoshowsthat
nrmsinthesamesectorarenotexpeCtedtocooperate，andthatthetendencytoappropriate
Stillstronglyinnuencestheshapeoftheorganization．
∫〃ハ・′’ピ′ノ′油′高明Jf！バーけ五亘、、G川ドHJ′）r
AllofthenrmsparticipatingintheSuperGMprqjectareadministeredbythe
EngineeringResearchAssociationfbrSuperconductiveGenerationEquipmentand
MaterialS．TheDirector，Mr．Ageta，isonceagainanamakuTtZd丘omMITIandthestaff
fbrtheassociationisprovidedbytheparticipatingnrms．
－197－
TheoverallorganizationoftheSuperGMprqjectrenectsthemaincomponent
developmenttasksofthesystem．Theparticipantscanbecategorizedintofburmain
developmentgroups‥SuperCOnductingcableandwiresuppliers，refhgerationdevelopers，
OVerallgeneratorsystemdevelopers，andsystemsusers．
However，Withineachofthegroupsshown，thereareseveralnrms．Therearesix
firmSSuPplyingthesuperconductingcablesandwires，tWOnrmSreSpOnSiblefbrthe
refhgerationsystem，threenrmschargedwithdevelopingthegenerator，andthreeutility
Organizations．Sotwoquestionsariseregardingcooperation・Dothesenrmscooperate
Wellwithinthegroups？Dothesenrmscooperatefreelybetweenthegroups？
Anexaminationoftheresearchorgzmizationwithineachofthesegroupsreveals
aboutthesamelevelofcooperationbetweerlCOmPetitorsthatwefbundintheJosephson
junctioncase：1ittle．Theorganizationshowsthatthetasksofthenrmsinthesamegroup
arealldiscreet，andthattheorganizatiorlaldesigndoesnotrelyonanycooperation
OCCurring．Competitorsarenotexpectedtocoopemte．
Table18showsthetechnologicalassignmentsfbreachnrm・Eachofthethree
generatormanufhcturerswereassignedresponsibilityfbrthreediffbrent70MVA
PrOtOtyPeS．Hitachiwasassignedtheslowexcitationresponsedesignwhichwould
employahighstibilitysuperconductordesign．Toshibawasgivenadiffbrentslow
excitationresponsegeneratorwhichemployedahighstabilitydesign，andMitsubishiwaS
givenresponsibilityfordevelopingaquickexcitationresponsemachinewithahighcurrent
density．Maekawaisgivenresponsibilityfbrproducingtherefhgerationequipmentfbrthe
70MVAunitanddividesresponsibilitywithIHlfordif托rentaspectsoftheeventual200
MVArefhgerationsystem．
Whereitmightseemthatcooperationmightoccurbecauseoforganizational
Placementisbetweenthevariouscablemanufhcturers．FurukawaElectriC，Sumitomo
ElectricandHitachiCableareal1assignedtotheslowresponsemachinesandboth
FurukawaElectricandSumitomoElectricareassignedtothefhstresponsemachine．But
investigationoftheiractivitiesrevealsthatthereisminimalcooperationoccurringbetween
thesenrms．
Asinthecaseorthegeneratorandre餌gefationmanufhcturers，reSearChinthecabie
andwirenrmsisdoneatthehomelaboratoryandthereisnoexchangeofresearchers
betweennrms．Communicationoccursthroughmorefbrmaltechnicalgatherings，Which
OCCuratSOmelevelonabimonthlybasis，andnoneofthetasksdefinedfbranyofthe
membersreliesoncooperatiorlbetweennrmsinthesamebox．Accordingtosources
invoIvedintheprqject，thecompetitionbetweenthecd）1eandwirenrmsisthegreatest
－198－
Table18 TechnicalAssignmentsofParticipantsinSuperGM
Equiprnent Firm
GenemtOrS
70MVA slow re5I氾nSe，山かlStab山け
70MVA slowresponse，highcurTeIlt
70MVA fastresponSe．lowlosS
Rehgemtion
High reliability system for70MVA prototype
Refrigeradonfor the200MVA system，
Oil－free screw
Refrigeration forthe200MVA system．
Oiトturbine
NbTiwire
Slow respon5e generatOrS
Fa5t reSPOnSe generatOr
Manufacturing methods
NbSn3wire
Slow response model
Manufactunng methods
Hitachi，Ltd．
MitsubiShi Electric
Toshiba
Maekawa
Maekawa
lHl
Furukawa，Sumitomo，
Hitachi Cable
Furukawa，Sumitomo
Furukawa，Sumitomo，
Ⅱ血chi Cable
Furukawa．Fl】jikura
Furukawa，Sumitomo，FujihTa．
Hitachi Cable，Showa，Kobe Stl
becausethematerialthattheyareprovidingtotheprqjectiscasescommerciallyavailable，
andthusrelevanttotheirmarketactivities．M毎OradvancesinNbTicablearenotrequired
fbrtheprototypes，andNbSn3development，Whichwi11notbeusedintheprototypes，is
developmentthatthesenrmswereconductingpriortothestartoftheprqject．Because
thesematerialstouchdirectlyupontheircommercialinterests，thereislittledesireto
COOperateandtheprogramanticipateslittle．
－199－
Toadlievesomeoftheeconomiesofscalewhileatthesimetimeaccommodating
thesecompetitiveincentives，ateStingcenterhasbeenestablishedforconductingsomeof
thehighneldexperiments．UsingspaceinCRIEPI’sresearchlaboratoryintheKomae
areaofTokyo，thefhcilitywi11havealargetestingapparatuswhichcangeneratea7telsa
magneticneldandlOtonsofmechanicalpressure．Tbisdeviceisintendedtotestthe
Stabilityofthesuperconductingwiresthatwi11beusedintherotorunderabnormal，
tranSientenvironmentswhichmightoccurintheeventofasystemerror．
Whataboutcooperationbetweentheboxes？DoesthisappeartObesomething
Whichhappensfreely？Whilethereisofcoursesomelevelofcooperation，therelationships
betweenthecableandwirefirmsandthegeneratorprototypedevelopersintheprqject
Showsacoordinationofcomplemerltaryinterestsbutcompetitiollbetweentheprincipal
developers．
Recal1fromourearlierdiscussionthatmanyofthecableandwirenrmsinJapan
Wereengagedinlong－termandoftenexclusivearrangementswithsystemsmanufhcturers．
ThemostexclusiveamngementswerebetweenHitachiCableandHitachi，andShowa
CableandToshiba．FurukawaElectricandSumitomoElectricarethelargestintegrated
manufhcturers，Withtheabilitytogo丘omrawmaterialtomagneticproductareare
general1ylessboundbythesesupplier－developerties．
Table19summarizesthelinkagesbetweenthematerialssuppliersandsystems
developers・Mostnotably，HitachiCableisseentosolelysupplyHitachi，Ltd．andnotthe
Otherprototypedevelopers．Thetwointegmtedcdblemanufhcturers，FurukawaElectric
andSumitomoElectricnndthemselvesintheadvantageOuSPOSitionof’notbeinglimitedby
exclusiverelationshipsandcanserveal1threedevelopers．Showa（hbleisgeneral1ykept
totheside，alongwiththemoreminorcabledevelopers，KobeSteelandFqjikuraCable．
ThesenrmsaregiventhetaskofdevelopingthemoreadvancedNbSn3tyPeOf
SuPerCOnductingwirematerialwhichisnotplannedfbruseduringthecurrentprqject．
Thesenrmsarethusnotteamedwithoneofthesystemsmakers・
Thusthetwomoreintegratednrmswithoutkeiretsurelationshipsarecooperating
Withallofthemanufhcturers，Whereasthenrmwiththeprimarykeiretsurelationshipsticks
Withitspartner・Amongthesematchednrmsthen，Wherethekeiretsuexisted，itpersisted・
Insum，COOperationbetweencompetitorsisnotdesignedintotheorganization．
∫坤erCO乃血C血g∫どれ∫Or
－　200胃
Table19　　RelationshipsBetweenMaterialsSuppliersandSystemsUsers
Furukawa Sumitomo Hitachi Fujikura Showa Kok
Electric Electric Cable Cable Steel
Hitachi，Ltd．
Toshiba
Mlt5ubishi Electric
1　　　　　1　　　　　イ
1　　　　　1
1　　　　　1
Primcipally（NbSr13W止e）　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　1＿＿＿＿＿1＿＿＿ノ＿…＿＿
Inthecaseofthesuperconductingsensorprqject，however，Wemightexpectthatan
exampleofcooperationamongcompetitorscannnallybefbund．TherulesoftheKey
TechnologyCenterrequirethattheseconsortiaestablishthemselvesatjointcenters，with
theconsortiahavingownershipoveranypatentsandknow－howdeveloped．Thusthereis
acentralfhcilityinTsukubawithindividualsdispatchedfromtheirhomeinstitutionsfbr
twotothreeyearrotations．LikeERATO，theKeyTechnologyCenterdesiresanarmsdistancepolicywiththehomeinstitutions．
LikemostR＆DorientedKTCinvestmentprQjects，eValuationsareconductedat
bothstrategicandresearchplanninglevels．Atthestrategiclevel，aSteeringcommitteewi11
begatheredtwiceayeartodiscussthegeneraldirectionandthrustofthecenter．These
COmmitteemembersincludeuniversityproftssors，Seniorresearchers丘omthegovemment
laboratory（ETL），andupperlevelmanagementfiomtheparticipatingcompanies．Atthe
researchlevel，departmentandsectionheads丘omtheparticipatingnrmswi11gather
togetherwithETLresearchersaboutfburtimesayeartoreviewresearchprogressandto
makeincrementalchangesinresearchstrategy．
Thusonthesurfhce，thisseemslikeaplausiblearrangementbecausetheteclm010gy
isasubstantialadvancebeyondthecurrentstate－0手the－art，andasubstantialleapbeyond
thecurrentresearchactivitiesadmittedtobytheparticipatingnmlS．Thefbrmalargument
POSedbyparticipantsisthatdevelopmentofthistypeofmultichanneldeviceistoogreata
riskfbranysinglenrm．140
Whetherornotthisistrue，thenrmsstillseemtogalninanumberofareas．One
SuChareacouldbethedevelopmentofthecontrolandanalysISalgorithms．Software
140　NihonDenshiKogyoShinkoKyokai，
⊆旦長生立地型』旦辿地P．5．
KodoSeitaiJibaKeisoku Shisutemu niKansuru
胃201－
developmentisaskillatwhichJapanesearestillrelativelyweakatrelativetotheiroverseas
competitors，SOthepoolingofresourcestoaddressthisweaknessandthecommontraining
providedcanbeseenasacollective，tranSferableoutcomeoftheactivity・Asecondarea
wouldbethesystemsintegrationknowledgegainedthroughthedevelopmentprocess・As
advancesneedtobemadeonanumberofteclmical丘onts，andtheseadvancescombined，
銭mlSeXPeriencedinbotharelikelytohaveanadvantageintheeventualdevelopmentof
c。mmerCialdevices．Beingoutoftheprqiectmeansbeinghandicappedshouldsuch
knowledgebeeffbctivelydeveloped・
Atnrstglanceitthusseemsasthoughtheadministrativerequirementsofthe
programandthepotentialcollectivegainsoftheteclm010gywouldprovidefbrthatelusive
cooperationamongcOmpetitorsonadvancedprototypeteclm010gies・
Actualpractice，however，Showsanorganizationalfbrmwhichmuststillbe
responsivetothecompetitiveinterestsofthemainparticipants・
Theparticipantsinthisresearchcorporationbringexpertiseinthreeareas：SQUID
basedtechnologiesandsensors，refhgeration，medicaldiagnosticsoflware，andmagnetic
shielding・Table201iststhenrmsandtheprincipalrelevantSkillwhichtheybringtothe
Table20　　ParticipatingFirmsandTheirExpertise
Hitachi
YokogawaElectric
SumitomoElectric
SeikoEpson
ULVAC
Toshiba
Daikin
TakerLakaConstruction
JosephsonJunCtions，MedicalequlPment，
ParallelprocesslngSO鉦waTe
SQUIDs，Medicalequipment
SQUⅡお，Medicalequipment，
Magneticshielding
SQUⅡ）S，hecisionsensors
S（〕UIDs
MedicalequlPment
RehgeralionequlPment
Conventionalmagneticshielding
－202－
Figure49　　RelationshipBetweenFirmsinthePrq5ect
SupportingequlPment　→→→→　Systems　←←←←← Sensors
Da血
（Rehg訂癒on）
TakenakaConstruCtion
（Ma伊leticshie】di乃g）
↓　↓　↓　」　↓　↓　↓　↓　↓　↓
Hitachi
YokogawaElectdc
ShimadzuMfg
ToShiba
↑　↑　↑　↑　↑　↑　↑　↑　↑　↑
SumitomoElectric
SeikoEpson
ULVAC
program，andFigure49showstherelationshipsbetweentheirprlnCipalteclmical
resporlSibilitiesfbrtheprqiect．
HitachihasdoneratherextensiveresearchonJosephsonjunctionsfbrcomputers
andistheonlysuchnrmintheconsortia．YokogawaElectricandSumitomoElectrichave
beenconductingresearchonSQUIDdevices，aStOalesserextenthaveSeikoEpsonand
ULVAC．SumitomoElectricisalsotheprimarysupplierofhightemperature
SuPerCOnductingmaterialsfbrthisprqject．I）aikinisamajormanufhcturerofrefrigeration
equipment，includingliquidheliumrefhgeration，andTakanakaConstructionbringsskills
inmagneticshielding．ForTakanaka，advancesinHTSarethoughttoholdsignincant
promisefbrmagneticshieldingconstructioninlargebuildings．
Toencouragesomesenseofequaltreatmentandcooperation，theconsortiawillbe
rotatingitsdirectorshipamongthethreemaininvestors，andwillselectaresearchleader
丘omanationallaboratoryratherthanoneofthenrms．Administrativeleadershipofthe
COnSOrtiaisscheduledtorotateeverytwoyearswithHitachisendingthenrstadministrative
head，Dr．MitsuoAi，YokogawaElectricfbllowingwiththenexttwoyearposting，and
SumitomoElectricassigningthennalhead．Thesethreenrmsaccountfbr75％ofthetotal
nrminvestment．Todirecttheresearch，thememberssoughtanindividual丘omamore
neutralorganization，WhichleadtotherecmitmentofDr．Kato，areSearCher丘omthe
ElectroteclmicalI．hboratory．
一203－
Inthebeginningyearoftheprqject，itisanticipatedthat20researcherswi11be
activatedtoconductsimulations，Paperanalyses，andtohelppreparethelaboratory・Once
fhllyoperating，thisnumberisexpectedtogrowto30．
Whatisalsoclear，however，isthattheseSSLnrmsbringcompetitiveintereststo
theendcavor．HitachiandYokogawaElectriC，tWOOfthethfeePrOgramleaders，Shimadzu
Manufhcturing，andthenewadditiontotheprqject，Toshiba，areJapan’sleading
manufhcturersofsophisticatedmedicalequipment．Thesenrmsare，fbrexample，Japan’s
topfburfirmsinsalesofMRIdevices．
Thusinprogramoperation，COOperationisonlypartial1yachieved，Withthe
COmpetitiveinterestsofthenrmsplayinganinnuentialroleintheexecutionoftheresearch．
Althoughthereisacentralresearchfhcility，muChofthehardwafereSearChwi11conducted
bytheparticipantsintheirhomelaboratories．Atthetimeofthiswritingtheso什ware
developmentatthecentralfhcilityisunderway，butthereiSStillnegotiationoverhowthe
hardwareresearchwillbecoordinated．Whiletheso什warewritingismoresuitedtobeing
aco11ectiveactivitybecauseot．thecriticalmassneededfbrtimelydevelopmerlt，the
hardwarecomponentscanbelargelydevelopedbythenrmsintheirownlal）OratOries，and
thisiswhattheywouldliketodo．SoinactualoperatioIl，COmPetitiveinterestsagainlead
toadividedresearchstruCture．
Asecondareaofconnictwithconsortiagoalsisintheassignmentofresearch
PerSOnnel．141Theconsortiaandthenrmsnegotiateoverthenecessaryskillsfbradvancing
theresearch，butthenrmsgenerallydecideontheparticularindividuals．Moreimpottantly，
丘omtheperspectiveoftheconsortia，itisgenerallydesiredthattheresearchersremainas
longaspossiblesothattheleamingthatisacquiredduringthenrstfbwyearsisnotlost
duetoapersonnelchange．142However，丘omtheperspectiveofthenrm，itisdesiredthat
usefu1know－howdevelopedbytheresearchersbeintegratedintothecomparly’sown
researchinatimelymanner．Andnnally，丘omtheperSPeCtiveoftheresearcher，an
extendedd）SenCe丘omthenrmcanbeahandicaptoone’scareerasoneisremovedfiom
WOrkthatisconsideredclosertothekeyinterestsofthenrmoritsprontibility．Thusan
absenceoflongerthantwotothreeyearsislessdesirablefbrone’scareerdevelopment．In
141First．ythereisthepractica－problemofcostreimbursement・TheKeyTechnoJogyCenteronly
reirnbursesthefirmsforthedirectsaJaryofthedispatchedemployee，SOthefirmisJefttheburden
Ofatloverheadcostssuchashousingandbene甫ts・Tothefirn唱then．dispatchingworkersmeans
addingtoitscosts．
142Dr・Aiandothershavecommentedthattwotothreeyearsisoftentheminimumneededto
becomewe”versedinresearchinthetechnotogy．
胃204－
thecaseoftheplanningfbrthisprQject，aSWellasinmostoftheKeyTechnologyCenter
Prqjects，143thecooperativeyieldstothemorecompetitiveinterestsoftheparticipants．
仕早川h高′順バ∫間＝′MJT
Inallcasesweseethatsomecommunicationbetweennrmsdidoccur，butwas
centeredaroundtheformationoftheprqject．Theplanningandleamingprocessappearsto
haveprovidedthegreatestopportunityfbrcooperation．Atthisphaseofidentifyingwhat
rleedstobedone，thereisalevelofuncertaintyandignorancewhichencouragesmutual
1eaming，againlargelywithpublicinfbmlation．Astheresearchprogressed，andthefirms
becamemoreconndentaboutwhattheyweredoing，thenowofinfbrmationbetween
COmPetitorsdiminished．
WhentherlationallaboratoriesareinvoIved，WeSeethatalthoughtheyareprimari1y
interestedintheirownresearchtheyserveimportantrolesinprogramguidanceand
teclm0logytransfbr．Itisclearthatthenational1d）OratOriesaremostinterestedintheuseOf
thefundsfromthenationalprqjectstopromotetheirownresearchinthearea．Theyhave
generalautonomyinsettingtheiTreSearChpanandonlyIleedto’’consider”thewotkthat
thenrmshavebeenassigned．
Therefbretheprqjectbudgetreceivedisamajorboon fbrthenational1aboratory
researchers．RecallalsothattheirstafrcostsaresupI氾rtedbytheregularlaboratory
budget，andthatequipmentfundsarenormal1yverytightintheusualoperatingbudget．
Thusfundsreceivedfbrparticipatinginanationalprqjectcanbeusedalmostsolelyfbrthe
PurChaseofnewldboratoryequipment，Whidmakesthemveryhappyastheycanbetter
PurSuetheneldastheyfbelbest．
InthecaseoftheJosephsonjunctionpr亘iect，WeSaWthatETLmadeanimportant
technicalcontributiontothewofkofthenrrnswithitsdevelopmentofmoreworkable
NiobiumalloyJunCtions．Howeverthistypeofcontributionseemsrare．hsteadthe
laboratoriesservetheprogramsbyprovidinganeutralposition丘omwhichtheprogressof
thenrmscanbeevaluated，tOalevelatwhichtheMITIheadquartersstaffcouldnotcome
Closetoachieving，andbyactingasanagentofinfbrmationtransfbrbetweenthenrms．
Thislatterrolehasparticularpotentialwhentheresearchofthelabomtoriesisevaluated
highlybythenrms，aSETL’sworkwasregardingJosephsonJunctions．Thenrmsthen
143GeraldHane，昼型型塑型吐凸型堕垣裏道I垣盛運＿塾竺型匹丸型迫旦旦堕垣旦皿旦吐j上し也迫虹
生地吐並旦＿旦［！担也空也氾ユ虹辿虚廷迦墜旦辿麺塾PNL－7315，RichIand：PacificNorthwest
Laboratory，June1990．
胃205－
Seekthelaboratoriesadvice，andthisbecomesaneffbctivemeansofkeepinginfbrmed
abouttheprogressofthenrms・
Themostimportantpointhereisthatinthesystemsprqjects，insteadofcooperation
betweencompetitors，Wewitnesscoordinationbetweennrmswithcomplimentaryinterests．
ThelackofsharinginsupposedlyprecompetitiveresearchhasalsobeenobservedbyLuke
GeorghiouinhisstudyoftheAIveyprogram．Henotedthat’’InAlvey，70％ofthe
ParticipantsworkednotwiththeirriValsbutwithcompaniesthathadcomplementary
skills．叩144
CompetitorsinthemarketlaTgelyremaincompetitorsintheprQject・Butbecause
thenationalhboratoryresearchersanduniversityprofbssorsadvisingtheprqjecthave
accesstoinfbmational）Outfirmadvances，theyactasinfbrmationcentersthroughwhich
nrmscanmonitoreachother’sprogress．Competitionthushasthepositiveeffbctof
acceleratingthepaceofdevelopmentasthenrmstrytokeepupwitheachother．Insteadof
Organizingfbr”precompetitivecooperation，’’wewitness’’procompetitivecoordinatioバ’
Measuresofprojectimpact－thebenefitstothefirmandindustry
Intheend，WhatisimportantabouttheprQjectistheextenttowhichitaffbcts
innovation．Companieswi11arguethatthesegovemmentpromotedR＆Dprogramshave
becomeincreaslnglyperipheralasthenrmshavebecomemuchstrongerandcan
individuallysupportthereseardthattheyareinterestedinpursuing．Theyarguethat
Participationissimplytokeepthegovernmentappeased．Bycontrast，OVerSeaSWeStill
丘equentlyhearthecommentthatthesegovemmentpromotedprogramshavebeencentral
COmPOnentOftheadvanceofindustriesinJapan，enablingthecountrytoleap丘ogindustrial
levelsintheUnitedStatesandEurope．Whatwewillnndinthefbllowinganalysisisthat
bothofthesestatementsseemlargelyincorrectwhenappliedtothecasesstudieshere．To
understandthisandtogetaviewoftheraJlgeOfpossibleimpactsofthepr亘iectonthe
teclm010gyandtheindustryIwillapproachthediscusSionintwolevels．
Atonelevelthereistheimpactoftheprqiectontherelativedevelopmentofthe
SpeCinctedmology．Thisisanarrowlydennedviewoftheimpactoftheprqject，
fbcussingonthelevelofdevelopmentofthetechnologyandthelevelofnrmeffbrtcredited
tothegovernmentprogram．
AtasecondlevelistheimpactoftheR＆Dprqiectontheindustrymoregenerally
andthemarkets．Thisisintendedtobeamuchmoremacrolevelanalysiswhichconsiders
144JaneBird，OP．Cit．
－206肩
thesizeoftheprQjectrelativetotheactivityintheindustryingeneral，theim匹Cttheprqject
SeemStOhaveinspurringsimilarR＆Dactivityatothernrms，thedevelopmentofinternrmsrelationships，
thedevelopmentofinter－firmnetworksandtheim関CtOnindustrial
diffusion，thedevelopmentofcomplementaryassets，andtheimpactofthetechnologyin
themafketplace．Itisincreasinglyarguedthatitistheseindustry－Wideeffとctsthatarethe
realbenentofthenationalprograms，withtheactudR＆DprQjectssimplybeingtooIsto
achieveagenerallevelingupoftheindustry．
Alloftheseprqjectsareveryrecentlycompletedorstillunderway，SOtheevaluation
Oftheirultimateimpactiscertainlypremature．Howeversomeusefhlcommentscanbe
madegiventhecurrentrelativelevelofadvanceoftheindustry．
Impacton thefirmarLd targetedtechnol0gy
Havetheseprogramshadasignincantefrbctonthenrmsandthedevelopmentof
thetechnology？Byexaminingthecontributionoftheprogramtothelevelofresearchin
thenrmsandtherelativelevelofadvanceinthetechnologyachieved，SOmePerSPeCtivecan
begainedintothisquestion．
Whatweleamisthatinalloftheseprograms，theleveloftechnologyisraised丘om
OneinwhidlthestateoftheartinJapancleadylaggedtheintemationalfrontier，tOOnein
Whichitonparwithorperhapsastepmoreadvancedthaninternationalperfbrmanceof
COmParhbleresearchprototypes．Howeveradvancesareincrementalratherthan
revolutionary．
Thisdoesnotmeanthatallofthetechnologicalchallengeswhichneedtobemetfbr
marketapplicationhavebeenovercome．Insomecases，ratherlargebarriersremainwhich
needtobesoIvedbefbrethereisanyimpactontheindustry．ThuswhiletheprQjectscan
general1ybearguedtobeinnuentialinlevelingupthestateofthetechnologytheymaybe
Oflittlesuccessinovercomingbarrierstocommercialpenetrationthathavestifled
researchersabroad．
上目ーピ／可．1ピバl小〃バIJ高でJrり′ト／J‘址、’ピ〃（UJ
Forallofthecasesinvestigatedhere，aSWellasfbrthecasesinsuperconductivity
describedinthehistoricalreview，SuPPOrt丘omthegovemmentprogmmrepresentsa
SigninCantlevelofthenrmsoverallparticipationinthisarea．nereis，however，SOme
SeParationinthelevelofparal1elactivitydependingontheuncertaintyoftheteclm0logy
andtheultimatecommercialpotential．Asonewouldexpect，thegreaterthepotential
胃207－
marketsandmoremoderatetheuncertainty，themoremoderatethegovernmentsupport．
Wheremarketsaremorenarroworuncertaintieshigh，thegoverrmentplaysamoremajor
role．ThelevelsofstafrcommittedtothegovemmentprqjectasaperCentageOfthestafr
doingparallelworkareshowninTable21・TheJosephsonjunctionprqject，HTS－ED，and
QFPareal1aimedatthesameprincipalmarket，COmPuterSignalprocessing，andrankin
extentofgovernmentsupportaccordingtouncertainty．
Althoughthecompaniesparticipatingineachoftheseprqjectsbecameincreasingly
wealthyoverthe1980，S，thelevelofgovemmentsupportstillrepresentedasigninmnt
shareofthenrm’sactivitiesinthesetechnologies．
InthecaseoftheJosephsonjunction，thegovemmentprogramaccountedfbr40to
60％ofeachnrmsJosephsonjunctionactivity．Itwasciosert040％befbreIBMdropped
outinl983，butdidfbrashorttimecomecloseto80％fbrsomenrmsjustafterIBM
droppedout．TheexitofIBMcausedsomenrmStOlargelyabandontheirin－house
Josephsonjunctionresearch，SOMITIsupportwasparticularlyimportantfbrcertainactors
inthisperiod．Thuswhenmeasuredbythelevelofin－houseversusMITIprqテect
SuPPOrtedR＆D，theMITIprqjectisclearlyinfluential．
Forthenrms，thecontinuingaccesstofundsoverthelengthoftheprqiectandthe
Pri0rityplacedonthisprqjectaspartofanationalR＆Dactivitygaveresearchmanagers
leverageintemallytoincreasesta珂andallcompaniesdid．Inthisarea，allofthenrms
Wererelativelynewcomersandallhadrelativelysmal1stafhinthebeginning．Fujitsuwas
consideredthestrongestoftheindustryatthetime，butstillonlyhadontheorderof5
researchers．Prqjectparticipationwouldallownrmstomorethandoublethissize．For
nrms，ParticipationwasameanSOfmoreaggressivelyaddressingaweakactivity・
IntheJosephsonjunctionprqiect，itwasalsotruethatitwasonepartofamuch
largerhighspeedcomputerprqiectwhichoffbredsubstantialhndsfbrtheindustry
ParticipantS．Thisprqjectwasanotherinaseriesofcomputerprqjects，andthough
COmPanyeXeCutiveshaveincreasinglydiscountedtheimportancethisfbrmofgovemment
aidasthetheyhavebecomericher，theovemllprqjectstillmeanttheavailabilityof23
billionyenthatcouldlargelygotoresearchmaterialsandequipment．
InthecasesoftheHTS－EDandtheQFPprqiects，thelevelofin－houseresearchis
estimatedtobesomewhatsmaller，reneCtingtheincreasedriskoftheprqiects．HTS
electrondevicesarepoorlyunderstoodtechnologies，withthecompatibilityofthematerials
andthedevicedesignsveryuncertain．HerethelO－40％isthepercentageofallfirmstaff
COnductingworkthatisverysimilar．TheQFPisasirlgledeviceofunclearpotentialsowe
nnditwiththegreatestlevelofsupport．Firmsasserttobedoingnegligibleindependent
一208－
Td）1e21　　PercentofFirmReseardlerSConductingIn－HouseParallelResearchinthis
Areal45
Teclm010gy PercentofParallelIn－HouseWork
Josephsonjunction
HTSElectronicDevice
QuantumElectronicFlux
MagnetoencephalogTaPh
40－60％
10－40％
0％
30－50％
SuperconductingGenerator　　　　0－10％
in－houseresearchonthisdevicebecauseitshighuncertaintyonlywarraJltSalimited
COmmitmentofstafr，Whetheritisthenrmorthegoverrmentthatpays．
ThetwosystemsprqjectsalsoinvoIveasubstantialfiactionofgovemmentsupport．
Thisislargelybecauseofthescaleoftheinvestmentandthenarrownessofthemarket．
IntheSuperGMcaseinparticular，thegoalisatleastinparttoachieveasocial
O句ectivewheresemi－PublicorganiZationsarethecustomers，SOthegovemmentbearsmore
OftheburdenoftheR＆D．Mostoftheresearchatthesenrmsnowrelatingtoa
SuPerCOnductinggeneratorisandhashistoriCallybeensupportedbythegovemment．h
themethisissimilartothethelinearmotorcarprogramdescribedinaneadiersection．In
thelinearmotorcarcase，thecustomerissolelythegovemmentwiththegovemmentin
turnsupportingvirtuallyallofthedevelopmentcosts．
Inallcasescoveredinthissetofcasestudies，itseemsthatthefundingprovidedby
thegovemmentprogramisasignincanthctionofthatprovidedbythenrms．Asone
WOuldexpectthegreaterthepotentialcommercialmarketfortheteclm0logy，Orthemore
activethecompetitioninitsdevelopment，thegreaterthelevelofmatchingin－house
research．Inal1cases，fimsindicatedthatthelengthandstabilityofgovefrmentSuppOrt
helpsthemmaintainin－housesupportfbrsimi1arresearch．
145RecallthatthisisdifferentfrompercentagecostsasthecompaniesarenotfuTIyreimbursed
forthefuJJcostsoftheiremployees・
－209－
Displacement？
Onemightwonder，however，Whetherornotthegovemmentworkissimply
displacingprivatesectorworkthatwouldhaveoccurredinanycase．Inallcasestherewas
SOmeprivatesectorR＆Dthatprecededgoverrmentalparticipation，butitappearsthatinall
CaSeSthegovernmentworkacceleratedprivatesectorinvoIvementfhsterthanwouldhave
occurredinthed）SenCeOfaprogram：enhancementratherthandisplacement・
InthecaseoftheJosephsonjunctionprqject，WeCanSeeaSignincantincreasein
patentapplicationsanertheinitiationofthegovemmentprograminl980・IBM’s
invoIvementwasknownwellbefbrethisandtherewerenosignincanttechnicaladvanCeS
announcedintheperiodprecedirlgthisrisetoexplaintheeffbctasbeing丘omsomethirlg
otherthanthegovemmentprogram．ThisisfurtherconnrmedwhenIBMlefttheneldin
l983．Somemakersreducedtheirsta鮪toapointthatthein－houseworkwaslargely
SuppOrtedbygovemmentfunds・ThecontinulnggOVemmentPrOgramSuStainedin－house
work．
Intheca5eOftheHTS－ED，thegovemmentprqjectappearstocomplementin－house
WOrkandwillsustaincompanyactivityfbrataminimum，thetermoftheprQject．This
lattercommentisalsotrueofthesystemsprqjectswhichwouldnotlikelybetakenup
becauseoftheirscaleandnarrowmarkets．
Theonecasewherethereisevidenceof’displacementistheERATOparametron
Prqject．TheprincipalnrminvoIved，Hitachi，WaSCOOperatingwithProf．Gotoonthe
developmentoftheparametronbeforethestartoftheERATOprQject．WhentheprQject
began，Hitachi’sin－housefundingofthestafrwassimplyreplacedbyERATOfundingof
thestafr Howeverthesizeoftheeffbrtincreased4to5fbldanditnowtookahigherlevel
Ofvisibilityandadministrativesupportinthenrm．
上件gJqfreCわれOJo幻7月eJのveroJ乃rer71の0乃dJ∫rC乃ddrd
Seeingthattheseprogramsareinnuentialinacceleratingthelevelofeffbrtdirected
tothedevelopmentofthesetargetedteclm010gies，WeCOmetOthenextquestionofwhether
thishasasignincantteclmicaloutcome．I）otheprogramsleadtosignincantadvancesin
thetechnologieswhencomparedagainsttheintemationalstate－Of－the－art？
Unfbrtunatelyfbrmostoftheprqjectsselectedforthissystemsanddevices
discussion，WeCanOIllytalkabouttheexpectedplaceofthetechrl0logyasthefeSearChis
Stillunderway．TheJosephsonjunctionprqjectistheonlyonefbrwhichwehavedataon
Prqjectcompletion，SOIwillfbcusonitfbrthisdiscussion．TheJosephsonjunctioncase
ー210－
PrOvidesaninterestingexampleofaprqjectwhichmetmostofitsprototypedevicegoals，
butwhichwi11probablyhavelittleimpactonitsintendeduseincomputingsystems．The
Japanesenrmsthatparticipatedemergedasinternationalleadersinthetechnology，butwith
1ittleprospectofapplyingtheteclm0logyinsuperCOmPuterS：thefirmsgaineda
technologiCalstrengthbutlittleindustrialadvantage．
Asmentionedearlier，theJapaneseprograminitiallymimickedthatofIBM，
fbcusingonleadalloybasedJosephsonjunctions．However，1eadjunctionshadcertain
Weaknesses．146Theirelectrontunnelingcharacteristicscouldchangeovertimewhen
StOredatroomtemperature．ElementssuchasIn，AuandBi，fbrexample，Candiffuse
fromotherelectroniccomponentsintotheleadmatrix，CanCellingtheJosephsoneffbct・In
addition，becauseleadismechanicallyso丘，thejunctionsfhiledeasilywhenintegratedinto
devices．
OnSeptember23，1983，tWOyearSintotheMITIprqject，theneldworldwidewas
glVenaSurPrisewhenIBMannouncedataworkshoponJosephsonjunctiontechnologyln
LakeTahoe，Califbmia，thatitwassuspendingitslargeR＆DpTOgraminJosephson
technology．147IBMfiltthatrapidadvancesinsemiconductortechnologywerereducin
thecomparativespeedadvantagesoftheJosephsonjunctionsandIBMfdtthatitwouldbe
extremelydimculttodesignacachememoryfbraJosephsoncomputer．148
IntheindustryinJapaningeneral，PatentaPPlicationactivityrenectsthisevent，
withanoticeabledropinsubmissionsduringthe1983－1984period．Thiswasseenearlier
inFigure3．46．
FortheprqiectparticipantsthiswasamqjorunexpeCtedeventastheelectronicgiant
thattheyweretargetingtoovercomedroppedoutoftherace．Duringthisperiodof－Crisis，
itwasunclearwhetherthispartoftheoveral1supercomputerprqjectwouldcontinue．One
makerreduceditsin－housestafrby50％renectingaloweredpri0rity，andonlyHitachi
Claimstohavemaintainedastablelevelofactivity．
Thequestionremainedaboutwhetheritwaswisetocontinuethecurrenttrqjectory
aimedatthetechnologyoftheindustry’sleader，Whentheleaderitselfabandonedthe
OPtion．Fortheprogramtocontinueitwasgenerallyagreedthatarevisedapproachwas
needed．
ThisiswhensometimelyadvisewasprovidedbyMITI’sElectrotechnical
LaboTatOry．ETLpressedfbrash沌intechnologiCalemphasis丘omthelead－basedIBM
146日isaoHayakawa，P・嶋．
147ArthurRobinson，一旧MDropsSuperconductingComputerProject：Science，VoI．222，
November4，1983，PP．492－494．
148日isaoHayakawa．p．46；andArthurRobinson・
ー211－
pri0ritytotherehctorymaterials・Incontmstwithlead－basedjunctions，reflaCtOry
superCOnductors，SuChascompoundsofniobiumaremechanicallyhard，andthusexhibit
higherstdbilityandreliability．Theproblemtothattimehadbeenthatattemptsto
manufhcturejunCtionshadbeenplaguedbythefhctthatNiobiumischemicallyactiveand
reactseasilywiththeinsulatingmaterialsusedinthejunCtionbarrier・
ResearchersatBellLaboratorieshadsuccessfu11yproducedrefiactorybased
junctions，andETLfurtheradvancedthiswofk，nOtinganddemonstratingthatsomeofthis
problemwithreactivenesscouldbeovercomethroughtheuseofbarrierssuchas
amorphousSilicon，aluminum－aluminumoxide，OrmagneSiumoxide，ratherthanthe
niobiumoxidebarrierswhichnaturallyfbrm．
ResearchersinJapanmadethetransition丘omadifncultelectronbeamgunfilm
depositionteclmiquetothemoresuccessfu1useofsputterdeposition．Herethehigh
meltingtemperaturecharacteristicofniobiumisovercomebytheuseofaphysical
PrOCeSSingteclmique．Ionsofanonreactivegassuchasargonstrikethesurfhceof
niobiumsplittingofratomswhichthencrzuhintothesurfhcethatisbeingcoated．The
accumulationoftheseatomsonthesubstrateleadstothecreationofathinnlm．
Theproblemwiththeoxygenamnitywasalsoreducedthroughcontinuedworkin
Japan．Theproblemwasovercomethroughthedevelopmentofveryhighlyemcient
VaCuumSyStemSandvacuumpumps．
lnaddition，Niobium－basedmaterialsaresuperCOnductingathighertemperatures
Whidmeansgreaterstabilityandlesssensitivitytotemperaturenuctuations，andthese
materialshavelargergapvoltageswhichmeans払sterintrinsicswitching．TheNiobium
junctionswerealsodemonstratedtowithstandtherequiredprocesstemperaturesofseveral
hundreddegreesCelsius，Whereasthelead－alloyjunctionshadtobekeptbelowlOOC．
AnimportBLntpOinthereisthattheintemalinertia丘omtheinitia19yearplanmade
COntinuirlgtheprqjectmucheasierthanwouldhavebeenotherwisepossibleifthenrms
Werefundingresearchontheirown．BecausetheMinistryofFinancehaslittleinterestin
thecontentoftheR＆Dprogramsoncetheyhavebeenlaunched，andlittleabilityto
understandprogresseveniftheyhadaninterest，therewerenostrongbudgetarypressures
toterminate．Theexistenceofthelargescaleprqjectanditsfundingthusplayedan
impo血ltrOleinallowingthecontinuationofresearchwhichmayotherwisehavedied．
Withtheintemationalleaderoutoftheneldandthem互iorprogramsnowexisting
becauseofthisprqject，internationalattentionaltumedtoJapan．Andprogresswasmade．
F可itsusucceededindevelopinga8bitMPUbasedonJosephsonjunctions，Hitachi
－212－
demonstrateda4bitMPU，andNECdevelopeda4Kmemorywithanaccesstimeof580
ps・149
By1987，Fujitsuhaddevelopeda4－bitmicroprocessorbasedonJosephson
junctionwhichitclaimedwaSthenrstsuchdeviceconstructedintheworld．150It，sdesign
WaSbasedonAdvancedMicroDevices’Am2901microprocessorandoperatedwithatotal
Of1841gates．Theclock丘equerlCyinthecdticalpathwasoperatedataspeedoneorderor
magnitudefhsterthanaGaAsmicroprocessor，770MHz，andconsumedthreeordersof
magnitudelesspower，5mW．i51
Thiswasfbllowedin1989bythedevelopmentofa8－bitdataprocessingsystem，
essentiallyamicroprocessor，Whichwasconstructedwith6，300gatesand23，000
JosephsoIljunctions．Thisdevicewastestedwithanaveragecriticalpathspeedof5．3ps
andaspeedof7．Opspergateinthearithmeticlogicunit．Powerconsumptionwas
measuredat12mW．
ThelatterFujitsudevelopmentattractedparticularintemationalattentionasitwaS
themostadvancedinthewoddwhenannouncedinFebruaryofl990．Theheadofthe
JosephsonactivityirlFqjitsu，Dr．Hasuo，reCOuntStheextremelyhighinterestintheir
developmentwhenheattendedtheInternationalSolidStateCircuitConftrenceinthe
UnitedStatesinthemiddleofFebruary．HewaSaPPrOaChedby3firmstogiveamore
detai1edpresentationtoagatheringoftheirstaffi．Abadlydelayednight，however，CauSed
himtobeclosetonvehourslateforthemeeting．Butwhenhearrivedhefbundthatal120
Oftheinvitedattendeeswerestillwaiting，andpressedhimwithquestionSfbrhoursbefbre
theynnal1ybrokefbrdinneratlO：00．152
Hitachi’S4－bitmicroprocessor，alsobasedontheAm2901desigIl，WaSCOnStruCted
Withl，800gatesand5011Josephsonjunctions．Aclockspeedof770MHzwasalso
achievedalongthecriticalpathofthechip，alongwithapowerconsumptionof5mWanda
gatespeedof9ps．
Inaddition，in1989researchersatMITrsETLdevelopedwhattheyhaveasserted
istheworld’S6rstJosephsorljunctioflCOmPuter，withtheJosephsonlogicandmemory
149programresuItsaresummarizedintheprogram，sfinaHechnicalreports，塾担迫坦迎位旦辿塾
長旦ロ．虹迅速塑型l旦星g旦辿＿Giiu辿建SOkuKeisanShisute［処し地上生垣塑型⊥上迫垣
捷迫駐車旦L8g虫岨旦皿Tsukuba：DenshiGijutsuSogoKenkyujo，June1990，andbrieflyinK．
Tamura，”OgataKogyoGijutsuKenkyuKaihatsu，KagakuGijutsuyoKosokuKeisanShisutemuno
KenkyuKaihatsu，SeikaGaiyo：Tsukuba：DenshiGijutsUSogoKenkyujo，June1990．
150S．Hasuo，－JosephsonDigitalandAna［ogDeviceswithNiobiumJunctions：1stlnternational
SymposiumonSuperconductivity．August28－31，1988，Nagoya，Japan．
151S・Hasuo．・JosephsonDigitaJandAnalogDeviceswithNiobiumJunctions．
152AkiraNak叫ima，〃－HinoMaru：JyosefusonDerYSanki－KaigaideTakaiHoukaEru，〃拉堕車
塾弧呈出型塾担，March8，1990，P．5．
ー213－
devicessuccessfu11yintegrated・153　Thecomputer，knownastheETL－JCl，uSedfbur
Josephsonjunctionbasedchips，WaSCOnStruCtedwithatotalof22，000Josephson
junctions，andcombinedtodeliveralkilobitRAMandl280bitROM．Itoperatedata
SPeedoflKIPSwithapowerconsumptionof6．2mW．
Whencomparedwiththetechnicalgoalsposedattheoutsetoftheprogram，
PrOgramSuppOrterSCanadvertisetechnicalsuccess．However，memOryremainsan
unsoIvedchallengeforlargescalecomputerapplicationsofthetechnology．Fujitsuwas
initiallyassignedthetaskofdevelopingacachememoryandNECamassmemory，butin
themiddleoftheprQjectFttiitsulargely血ndonedthisactivity．ThenNECswitched
emphasis丘ommassmemorytocachememory，realizingthatthelatterwouldbeneededfbr
actualcomputeroperation．Whenthisagainprovedtobedimcult，theyswitchedthefbcus
backtomassmemory，allowingtheachievementoftheprogramgoals，butstillleavingthe
ChallengeofthemostdimculttechnologyunsoIved．
Thus，theprogramseemstohaveleadtothedreadedtechnologicaldeadend－at
leastfbrthefbreseedblefuture．FortheJJprqiecttohavebeenconsideredanoveral1
SuCCeSSitwouldhavetohavebeenthetechnologyofchoiceindevelopingthehighspeed
COmPuterPrOtOtype．Butitstillisn’t．
HoweveramoreimportantreasonisthatotheradvancesiIICOmputerPrOCeSSing
appeartohavemadetheJosephsonJunCtionafhrlessattractiveoptionthanitmighthave
beenattheoutsetoftheprqiect．Thiswillbedescribedhrtherinthefbllowingsection
discussingtheimpactoftheprqjectsontheindustrymoregenerally．
AsecondprqiectjustcompletedistheGotoQFPprqject．
By1990，reSearChersinthemagneticshieldingteamhadsucceededinatleast
Partiallyovercomingthegreatestchallengeinthedevelopmentofthistechnology－mOving
thetrappednuxthroughlocallaserheating．ThisisastepthathadevadedProf．Goto丘om
theoutsetandproves，heasserts，thepracticalfhsibilityofeventuallyeliminatirlgthenux
andachievingaperftctmagneticshield．By1990theyhadalsoachievedaswitchingspeed
Of8GIh，aPprOaChingthelOGHztheyhopedtoachievethroughtheircomputer
simulations．
AftertheprqjectiscompletedattheendofSeptember1991，thewofkatHitachi
WillcontinueunderanequipmentuseagreementwithJRI）C．JRDCwillnotprovidefunds
toHitachi，butwillallowthenrmtousetheequipmentboughtbytheERATOprqiectfbr
anadditionaltwoyears．
153〃AgencyJabdeveJopsprototypefornextgenerationcomputer：由良皇n塑型迫盟建地1
December12，1989．
胃214－
Tocontinuetheresearch，theretumingHitachireseardlerSwillbejoinedbythreeof
theprqjectresearchwhocamefbmuniversities．Allthreewi11havereceivedtheirPh．D．s
asaresultoftheresearchtheypursued・ThusfbrHitachi，theprqjectfunctionedasavery
effbctivetrainingandrecruitmentvehicle．
FinallyinMayof1992，JRDCwillreinitiatesupportintheformOfaHigh
TechnologyConsortia，withHitachiandULVACjoinedbyseveralothernrmStOCOntinue
thedevelopmentoftheQFP．
Inthecaseoftheparametron，althoughsomeresearchbyIBM，fIewlettPackard，
andtheUniversityofCalifbmiaatBerkeleyisurlderwaytoexplorethisteclm0logy，there
hasnotbeenanyindicationintheliteraturethattheyhaveadvancedbeyondthe
accomplishmentsofthisprqject、SoarelativecomparisonhaslittlesignincanceaSthe
Prqjectwasfbrmthestartthemostadvancedinthistechnology．
InthecaseoftheSuperGMprqject，theprimaryiflCentivefbrparticipationappears
nottobethetechnologydevelopmentitself，butthemafketpossibilitiesthatsuccessful
PrOtOtypedemonstrationwouldcreate．Shouldtheelectricutilitieseveradopt
SuperCOnductinggeneratorteclm0logies，itwillonlybea氏erthesuccessfu1demonstration
OfaprototypeWhichisofascalerelevanttocommercialuse．T71isistheopportunity
PrOVidedbySuperGM．ThusparticipationinSuperGMbecomesakeytoparticipationin
theeventualcommercialmarketirlgOfthistechnology，andthenrmsthatparticipatewill
Createfbrthemselves，tOSOmeeXtent，abarriertotheentrytoothernrmSWhowilllackthe
experienceandsaliencegainedthroughtheprQject．
Here，teChnologicaldemonstrationaloneisnotsumcienttodescribethevalueofthe
OutCOme．Forexample，Hitachi’sintemallydeveloped50MVAsuperconductinggenerator
isfundamentallythesameasthe70MVAquick－reSPOnSegeneratOrthatitisassignedinthe
PrOgram．Clearly，Hitachicoulddevelopa70MVAprototypeifthatiswhatwouldbe
necessarytomarketthetechnology．Butitisnotsufficient．Theutilitieshavetowantto
buy，andoneoftherolesofMITIparticipationistoprovideencouragementtoviewthis
technologyfhvorably．Althoughalloftheutilitiesarenominallyprivate，reCal1thattheyare
allcloselyadministeredbyMITI’sAgencyofNaturalResources，andtheagencyhas
Substantialregulatoryandlicensingpowers．Henceiftheutilitiesarefurtherencouraged
throughaMITIprogramtoconsideranewtechnology，thedepthoftheconsideration
deepens．
－215－
Impactontheindustry
Althoughtheteclmicalgoalsrepresentthenominaltargetsfbrprqiects，therearea
rangeofotherpossibleeffbctswhichmightimportantlyinnuencethedevelopmentofthis
areaintheteclm0logyintheindustrygenerally．Thereareanumberofcollectivebenents
thatcanarise丘omtheseprogrzms，andinthissectionthefbllowiTlgPOSSibilitieswillbe
discussed：1）marketeffbcts－theimpactofthetechnologyinthemarketplace；2）diffhsion
efTbcts－thedevelopmentofinter－nrmnetWOfks；3）complementaryasseteffとcts一the
developmentofneededsupportingskillsorindustries；4）allianceeffbcts－thedevelopment
ofinter－nrmSrelationships；5）signalingeffbcts－Othernrmsenteringtheneldbecauseof
thenationalprqiect；6）spin－Ofrefrbcts－thebene餌sofunanticipatedusesofthe
technologiesdeveloped，and7）competitiveeffbcts－theenhancementofindustry
COmpetition．
Themostimportantoftheseisthecompetitiveefftct．Itisthestrengthening，Or
”1evelingup’’ofm毎OrCOmpetitorstointemational1evelswhichisthegreatestbenent
COmpetitorsoftheprograms．Theprogramsnotonlyhelptolaunchthenrms，butdoso
withtheintentionofpositioningthenrmstocontinuetoacceleratedevelopmentintothe
market．
Marketefrbcts
OneimportzLntmeaSureOftheultimatesuccessofadevelopmentprqjectistheextent
towhichtheknowledgeortechnologiesdevelopedareused．Asalloftheseprqjectsare
Stillunderwayoronlyrecentlycompleted，theconclusionsandinfbrencescanonlybe
tentative．Nonetheless，COmparisonwiththestate－0手the－artduringtheprqject’sexecution
Oratitsendcanstillgivesomeinsighttoitscontributiontoultimateenduses．
RetumingtoourdiscussionoftheJosephsonjunction，WeCanSeethatwhatseems
tohaveultimatelyledtothedemiseofthisoptionasanimportaJltteChnologyfbrthe
SuPerCOmPuterisrelatedmoretoadvancesincompetingtechnologies．
Eventhoughthedevicesthemselveshaveseennotabledeveloprnentoverthedecade
theysuffbredfiomthreeproblemsthat丘equentlyariseinR＆D：l）morecomplexitythan
anticipated，2）rapidparalleldevelopmentofcompetinghardware，and3）developmentof
OthertechnologieswhichobviatetheadvantagesoftheJosephsonjunction．Allthree
reasonswerecitedbyIBMin1983，atthetimeofitsdecisiontostoptheirJosephson
JunCtionprogTam．
ー216－
Theproblemoftechnicalcomplexityrefbrstotheintrinsicdimcultyofmakinga
CaChememorywithJosephsonjunctions・InLSImemory，Cellsaretypical1ylinedupin
COlumnsandrowswiththesignalsdrivenbythevoltagesoftheswitchingdevices．
However，Josephsonjunctionsarenotcapal）leofgeneratinglargevoltagesbecauseoftheir
nature，SOtheyareinherentlyhandicappedindrivinglargememories．The4KBmass
memorydevelopedbyNECmeetstheprqjectgoals，butisstillalongdistancefromthe4
MBsiliconmemorychipsthatitiscurrentlyselling．154
ThesecondproblemfbrJosephsonjunctionswastherapidimprovementinsilicon
andgaliumarsenidesemiconductordevices．Inthelate1970’stheswitchingspeedsof－
SiliconsemiconductorswereontheorderoflOOto200picoseconds．Howeverbythelate－
1980’S，SemiconductorswererecordingspeedsinthefbwpICOSeCOndrange，nOtmuCh
diffbrent丘omJosephsonjunctions．Fromthebeginningortheprqjectitwasrealizedthat
galiumarsenidesemiconductorshadthepossibilityofperfbrmingnearthespeedsof’
Josephsonjunctions，anddevelopmentsthoughthedecadebothwithintheprogramand
externallyprovedthistobepossible．
Finally，therewasthesuccessfu1developmentof－higherspeedparallelprocessing
SyStemSfbrthehighspeedcomputer．InAmerica，fbrexample，N－Cubedhaddevelopeda
Parallelprocessingsystembasedonconventionalsilicontechnologythathadacomputing
SPeedof25Giga－FLOPs．In1990，aCOnSOrtiumledbyhtelCorporationandthe
CalifbmiaInstituteofTeclm010gyannouncedthatithaddevelopedasupercomputerusing
Paral1elprocessingandnovel”mesh－rOuting’’chipswhichcouldperfbrmanaverageof5to
15Giga－FLOPS，withatopspeedof32Giga－FLOPs．155Bothexceedtheprogram’s
nominalgoalofdevelopingalOGiga－FLOPmachine．
Thesethreeproblemsfbrlong－termPlanningcanalsobeusedtohelpplace
PerSpeCtiveonthepotentialoftheotherprograms．TheGotoQFPteclm010gystillseemsto
fhceallthreeofthebarriersfhcedbytheJosephsonjunction．Thephysicaldevicehasyet
tobefu11ydemonstrated，advancesinswitchingdevicesarereducingthediffbrencein
Speed，andadvancesincomputersystemarchitectureandreducingtheoverallcomputing
advantage．
Thesystemsprqjectsappeartofhcesmal1ertechnologiCalbarriers，butstillfhcethe
Challengeofbeingsupersededbyparalleldevelopmentsinrelatedtechnologies．Forthe
SuPerCOnductinggeneratorthisthreatwouldcomeinthefbrmofevengreaterreliabilityin
alreadyemcientconventionaltechnology．Withreliabilityweighedheavilybytheutilities，
154AkiraNakajima，のHinoMaru：JyosefusonDensanki－OgatakeikinoShuyakunoSekiToku，
坦上地由旦星口旦y旦＿∈坦也蝕坦lMay9，1990，P．4．
155〝World，sFastestComputer，～塾垣些蔓，November30，1990，P．1203．
－217－
penetrationifitoccurs，maybeveryslow・Inthecaseofthesensors，nOOther
technologiescurrentlyknowntobeunderdevelopmenthavethepotentialofproducingthe
SamereSOlution．However，Withanincreasingnumberofnrmsinvestinginthisand
relatedteclm010gies，itmaynotendupoffbringsubstantialadvantageSfbrpatientdiagnosis
toparallelsystemsbeingdevelopedoutsideoftheprqject．Nonetheless，althoughthe
actualsizeofthemarketwilldependtosomeextentonthecostanddiagnosticcapabilities
Ofthesystem，thetechnologyseemssuretohavesignincantimpactonthescienceofthe
uSer．
Diffusionefrbcts
Weobservedintheanalysisofthehightemperaturesuperconductivityresearch
PrOgramS，ParticuladyinISTEC，thatR＆DconsortiacanprovideafbrumfbrthediffilSion
Ofinfbrmationandknowhow．Recallthatsomeobservershaveproposedthatthisis
ParticularlyimportantinthecaseofJapan，Whererigidlabormarketspreventtheexchange
OfinfbrmationthatattendspersonnelmovementsinmorenexiblemarketS．156
Inthesesystemanddevicecasestudiesthedifhsionofinfbrmation，Particularly
betweencompetitors，isnotaregularorsmoothprocess，Zmdtotheextentitdoesoccur
duringtheprqiectappeaIStObeduetotheinterdictionofathirdparty，thenational
laboratories．InthecasesoftheJosephsonjunctionandHTS－EDprqject，CaSeSinvoIving
theparticipationsolelyofcompetitors，WeSaWthattheresearchwasconductedinseparate
fhcilitieswithindependentgoalS．Inanattempttopromotecommunicationbetweenthese
firms，theconsortiaorganizedteclmicalgroupmeetingsontheorderofeverytwoweeksto
OnCeeVeryOneOrtWOmOnthS，dependingonthesizeandextentofcoverage．Morethan
discussions，however，thesesessionstendtowardfbrmalpresentations，Withthefirms
lettingoutwhattheyfbelthattheyarerequiredtobecauseoftheirparticipation．
Achannelthattheycannotcontrolastightly，however，isthatofthenational
laboratories．Researchersinthelaboratorieshavethefbrmaltaskofevaluatingtheworkof
thenrms，Withfbrmalevaluationsatmid－PrQjectanditstermination．Moreimportantfbr
fhcilitatingitsroleindifhsingimportzmtinfbrmationisthelaboratorysroleasanevaluator
andadvisor．Ifthehboratoryisstronginthetechnology，aSETLwasinthecaseofthe
Josephsonjunction，nrmSWillseekitsadviceandthelaboratorywillleamofnrm
156GarySaxonhouse，JapaneseCooperativeR＆DVenturesaMarketEva．uation，Seminar
DiscussionPaperNo．156，ResearchSeminarinhternationalEconomics，AnnArbor：University
OfMichigan，August1985．
－218－
PrOblemsandadvancesasitadvises・Thelaboratorythusbecomesacenterpointfbrthe
transftrofinfbrmation，Creatingdiffhsionwhereiswouldnototherwiseoccur．
Thissamegeneralargumentseemstoapplytocompetingnrmsthatfnrticipatein
thesystemsprqiect．
VVherethereisevidenceofasubs也Iltialamountorinteractionbetweenthe
COmPetitors，however，isintheplarmingprocess．AtthisstagethenrmSareStillinthe
PrOCeSSOfleamingaboutthestateofthetechnology，Withtheplanningtakinganaverageof
twoyears．Thusthemostactivephaseinthediffusionofinfbrmationseemstobebefbre
theprqjectbeginsratherthanafler．Itisinthisplanningst喝ethatthediffhsionargument
amongcompetitorsismostrelevant．
C型旦pJCnl亡Iltこl汀a虫ミetCrkcts
Asoneoftheprincipalintentionsofthesystemsprqjectsistoestablishlinks
betweenavarietyoftechnicalskills，theyaretosomeextendinherentlyexercisesin
buildingcomplementaryassets．InthecaseoftheSuperGMprqject，fbrexample，the
PrOgramisdesignedtolinkthematerialsandcomponentmanufhcturerswitheachother，
andjustasimportantlywithutilitieswhichwouldeventual1yadoptthetechnologyif
SuCCeSSfu1．Theparticipationandco－OPtationofutilitiesis，aSmentionedearlier，OneOfthe
Principalpurposesofthisprogram，Sincetheabsenceoftheircommitmentwouldbea
SeVerehandicaptocommercialiZation．
Inproducingtheprototypesthesupplier爪rmsalsoupgradetheirowntechnologies
tobettermatcheventualcommercialrequirements．Forexampleinthesuperconducting
generator，thecdbleandwiremanufhctureswantedtoincreasethetwistpitchofthe
SuPerCOnductingwirestoaccommodatethehighneldsrequiredoftheprototypes．
Twistingaconductoraboutitsaxiscausesthevoltagebetweenanypairofnlamentsto
reverseperiodically，greatlylimitingfluxjurnping，alsoknownascross－matrixcurrent．So
theywotkedwithawireequipmentmanufhcturertoextendthecapabilityorcurrent
equlpment．
InthecasesoftheJosephsonjunctionandtheHTS－ED，evidenceof
COmPlementaryassetsbeingarticulatedthroughtheprogramsislessclear．Oneoutside
advancewhichdidproveveryhelpfulwasinsputteringtechnologyinthelate－1970’sand
early－1980’S．Surfhcesciencetechniquesingeneraladvancedrapidlyinthisperiodandthe
advancesmadeinsputteringerLd）1edthedimcultmanipulationofniobium－alloysinto
WOfkablejunctions．
胃219－
Generally，however，inthesecasesthedevicesarediscreetanddonotrequirethe
SuPpOrtingskillsofthesystemstechnologies・Foruseintheirintendedapplications，
integrationwith1arge－SCalecomputerdesignsisofcourseessential，buttheseskillsarealso
heldbythesesamenrrns，aStheyarealHargeintegratedmanufhcturers・Thusastheskills
fbrdevelopment，fbrintegrationintofinalproducts，andfbrsalesareal1containedwithin
eachoftheparticipants，theneedfbrdevelopingimportzLntCOmPlementaryassetswasnot
criticalanddidnotevidenceitself．
Allianceefrbcts
StudiesoftheEuropeanCommunityprogramsincooperativeresearchsuchas
EUREKAandBRITEbyresearcherssuchasGeorgioandSiprianohavenotedthatan
importantbene茄tsfirmsreceive丘omparticipationisfromtheopportunitytofbrminterfirmalliancesfbrthedevelopment，
PrOduction，distributionorsalesofproductswhichmay
OrmaynOtbefelatedtothetopicofresearch．Onemightexpecttoseejointventures
betweenverticalordiagonalinterestsorcartelsfbrmedbynrmsinthesameindustry・
Becausetheseprogramstendtobelimitedtolargecompaniesthatalreadyhavea
strongpresenceintheeconomy，however，thechancescreatedfbrtrulynewopportunities
donotappearsignincant．hverticalandhorizontalrelationShips，manyOfthelargerfirms
arealreadyinvoIvedkeiretsu，WhichlimitstheirfieedomtofbrmnewalliancesinJapan・
Thiswouldbeparticularlydimcultwithamernberofanotherkeiretsunml・
ThecaseofSuperGMshowedthatthepowerofkeirelsuamliationnndsitsway
intotheorganizationoftheprogram，withHitachiCableonlysupplyingHitachi，Ltd・，and
Withtheprimarycableandwiremanufhcturersinthisprqjectintentional1yselectedasthose
notamliatedwithanindustrialgrouplng．However，OneCanarguethattheprqjectallows
fbrasmoothercoordinationbetweenanumberofcomponentdeveiopersandanumberof
SyStemSdeveloperswhichshouldaccelerateactualsystemdevelopment，andthatnrmsnot
inkeiretsucanfirmtheirpenetrationintovariousKeiretsu．Theseclaimscanalsobemade
fbrthesuperconductingsensorprqiect．
ThecasesoftheJosephsonjunctionandHTS－EDprqjectsshowedlittleevidenceof
desiretocollaboratebytheparticipatingnrms，withlittleevidencethattheprqiectsare
fbedingthegrowthorcartelsmorethancompetitors．
Thusstrategicalliances，atleastthroughthesystemsanddeviceprQjectsstudied
here，arenOtaSignincantbenentbecauseofthesmallscaleofthemarketandparticipants．
Theprqjectsdo，however，dlowfbrsomenon－keiretsupenetrationintothekeiretsu
SyStCm．
ー　220－
Si nalinTe独
Signalingefftctswereseentobepresentinourearlierhistoricaldiscussionofthe
developmentofthesuperconductingmagnetsfbrtheMHI）generatorandintheearlyyears
Ofthesuperconductingelectricgenerator・Wesawnrmswhichwerenotparticipatingin
thegovemmentprograms，SuChasFujiElectricaIidFujikurainthecaseoftheMHD
prqject，andHitachiandToshibainthecaseofthesuperconductinggenerator，initiate
technologydevelopmentprogramsinresponsetothegovemmentsponsoredprqjects，
eitherwiththeintentionofjoiningtheprqiectlaterorofbeingpreparedshouldamarket
begintoappear．Butthiswasintheearlyyearsofsuperconductivitywhenitwasnotclear
Whatusescarriedthemostpotential．
Inthecaseoftheprqjectsinvestigatedhere，however，Clearevidenceofsignalingis
notclear・hmostofthesecasesthenrmswhocametobeinvoIvedinthetechnologywere
invoIvedbefbrethestartofthegovemmentprogram，andthereisnoevidenceofpurely
Privatesectorprogmmschallengingthegovemmentprogramsinscaleof－investment．
PatentandpublicationdatafiomtheJosephsonjunctionprqjectshowsthattheprimary
industrialactorswerethosesponsoredbythegovernmentprqiect．
InthecaseofthemagnetoeIICePhalograph，theprincipalnrmsinthesmal1Japanese
industryarethosewhichhelpedtocreatetheprqject．Thetechnologywascertainly
generallyknownbythemedicalequlPmentindustrygenerally．However，duringtheperiod
Ofprqjectfbrmationandexecution，anumberofothernrmshavebegundevelopment
PrOgramS，includillgFUjitsu，FurukawaElectriC，MitsuiMetals，SumitomoHeavy
Industries，andNGKInsulators．Theexistenceofamulti－yeargOVemmentPrOgramtO
PrOpelthisteclm010gywascitedbyseveralofthesenrmsasanimpo血tfhctorin
COmmittingresourcestoitsin－housedevelopment．
ItseemsthatastheiIldustryhasmatured，itbecamemuchmorecapableof
evaluatingpromisingapplicationsofsuperconductingmaterialsandwouldmovetothese
areasmorequickly，befbretherewereanygovemmentprogmns．Anexampleofa
technologyareathathasgrownveryrapidlywithoutagovernmentprogramisthatof－
MagneticResonanceImaging（MRI），Whichissuperconductivity’slargestinternational
market．
Thegovernmenthasincreasirlglycomeinaftertheindustryhasconducted
preliminarydevelopmentandclarinedtheinternationalma正etsandcompetition．Soif
thereissignal1ingnow，itseemstobe丘omtheindustrytothegovemment．
－　221胃l
SilトOrrerkcts
An0therargumentwhichhasgainedwidecirculationisthattheprototypeSWhich
embodytheformalg脱1softheprogramsarereal1yjustvehiclesfbrthenrmstoincrease
theirskillsinthisteclm0logy．Theultimatebenentscomeswhenthenrmsapplythis
experiencetomoreadvanCed，COmmerCial1ytailoredversionsofthetechnology，OrtOOther
technologyareas．Spin－0町itisarguedisanimportantbenentoftheseprogramsasthey
aregeneral1yintendedtobe”tedmologybase”ratherthanproductspecinc．
Inthecasesstudiestheredoesseemtohavebeenanimportantspin－Offeffbct，but
fbrotherreasons．Spin－Offbenentsfromtheprogramsstemfroml）themarketfbr
SuPerCOnductingtechnologieswhichtheprqiectscreate，2）themaintenanceofacompetitive
CaPabilityinsuperCOnductivitywhichcanbedirectedtoentirelydiffbrentend－uSe
teclm010gies，and3）theexistenceofaresearchfundthatcanbedrawnfromtosupport
unanticipatedeventsinrelatedareassuchasthediscoveryofHTS．
IntheearlysuperCOnductivityprqjectswesawtha?hemarketthatwa5Createdby
govemmentprocurementswastheprincipalonecompaniesaddressedindeveloping
SuPerCOnductingmagnets．WhenRichardBrandtvisitedJapaninl971fbrtheOmceof
NavalResearch，heconcludedthatthenationalprograminMHDhadprovidedacritical
marketfbrthedevelopmentofthesuperCOnductingmagnetindustry．”Intheabsenceof
thesenationalprqjects，’’heobserved，’’thereisnotenoughdemandtosustainthemany
COmpaniesinvoIved．”157
Thedevelopmentof’thelinearmotorcar，OfAISiontestfhcilities，andofthevarious
electricgeneratorprototypeS，andthehighneldtestfhcilitiesbeingcreatedaspartofthe
Multi－CoreProgram，al1contributedtothesupportofthismarketfbrmagnetsinthe
ensuingyears．I＿Argelytothecreditofthispullffomdemand，anumberofcableandwire
manufhcturerswereabletosustaindevelopmentactivitiesinsuperconductivityandhave
todayemergedasstrongintemationalcompetitors．
Secondly，thereisthemaintenanceofageneralcompetitivecapabilityirL
SuperCOnductivity．Asaresultofthisgeneraleapal）ility，theindustrywaswellpositioned
toadvanceintotheunexpecteduseoftechnologiessuchasMRI．Theexperienceof
JapanesenrmsinsuperconductingmagnetswaSClearlyabenentinassistingtheirquick
entryintothisneld．
157RichardBrandt，・SuperconductingTechno－ogylnJapan，・ONR－28，Arlington，VA：Officeof
NavaIResearch，June1971，P．2．
ー222－
Thirdlythereisthereseardbudgetthatwasmadequicklyavailableafterthe
discoveryofHTS・Recallfiomourearlierdiscussionthattherigidgovemmentfunding
SyStemPreSentednewprogramsinHTSresearchfiombeingstarteduntilayearandahalfaftertheconnrmation
・MITIdid，however，haveotherLTSprqjectsunderwayandwas
abletodivertsomeofthesefundstosupportHTSwork・InboththeJosephsonjunction
PrQjectandtheSuperGMprqject，fundswerereallocatedtosupporttasksinHTS．Inthe
CaSeOfSuperGM，fbrexample，SeVenreSearChtasksweredennedandassignedtoseven
diffbrentnrms：Furukawa，HitachiLtd．，Toshiba，FldikuIa，MitsubishiElectriC，Sumitomo
ElectriC，andtheJapanFineCeramicCenter（JFCC）．ThetasksaresummarizedinTable
22．JFCCwasaddedtotheprogramsolelytoconductresearchontheseoxidematerialS．
TotalfundingfbrtheHTStaskswasontheorderof3－5％ofthetotalprqjectbudget，and
al1researchwaSCOnductedseparatelybyeachofthelaboratories，nOtCOOPeratively・
However，mOredirectspin－Ofr丘omtheprqjecttechnoIogiesseemsamoredubious
Claim．Thepromotersofthesuperconductingsensorprqject，fbrexample，areleveraging
thespin－Ofrargumenttojustifysupport，nOtingthatthetechnologiesdevelopmentfbrultramagneticsensingmaynfldimportantusesinfunctionssuchasnon－
intrusiveinspectionof
StruCtureS，materialsresearch，Ortheanalysisofsignalsincomputers．
AclearerexampleisseenintheJosephsonjunctionprqject．Herethespin－Off
argumentisbeingpresentedbysupportersasevidenceofthebreadthofbenentsstemming
Table22　　HTSResearchTasksAssignedtoParticipantsintheSuperGM
Pr可ect
TeclmicalTask Fim
Wirefbrmingtechniques
Largeareaconstruction
Non－unifbrmresponsetechnology
Machineapplications
CVDprocessing
Meltprocessing
Ultranneparticleceramicwires
Funlkawa
HitachiLtd．
Toshiba
F叫ibn
MitsubishiElectdc
SumitomoElectric
JapanFineCeramicCenter
ー223胃
丘omthistechnology・Buttheseargumentsappeartobemoreapost－hocjustincation
ratherthanaconvincingassessmentofserendipity．
TheNikkeiSangyoShimbunreportsthatwhenaskedaboutnear－termaPPlications
OfJosephsonjunctions，reSearChersnowfbcusonusesotherthantheoriginallyintended
supercomputerswitchingsuchasl）computeracceleratorstoupgradeconventionalsilicon
computerstospeedsnearingthatofasuperCOmPuter，2）usesfbrwhichpardlelprocessing
cannotmanagesuchassensingfhstserialsignalsemittedbythebirthofstars，Zmd3）
SQUIDsensorsfbrmedicaluse・158Inthenear－term，thebiggestmarketfbrJosephson
junctionsappearstobeinI）ataSignalProcessorsusedbythemilitary・Thisisfhr丘omthe
initialvisionsoftheprogramatitsoutset，andappearstorenectanattempttosalvagevalue
oncetheprimarytargetappearsunattainable．
Spin－Ofrthusseemstohavebeenimportantfbrthetechnologymarketscreatedby
theprqiects，fbrsustainingageTleralcapabi】itythatcouldbetumedtocommercial
OPpOrtunities，andfbrprovidingasourcesoffundstoquicklyinitiatesomeHTSresearch．
Importantspin－Ofrdirectlyth）mtheprqiecttechnologieshasyettobewitIleSSed，andinthe
OneCaSeWhereitwasasserted，itappearstoberetrospectivejustincationmorethana
descriptionoftruebenent．
TlleConl elitiVCentCtS
Fosteringcompetitionduringtheconductoftheprogram，andthenfbsteringthe
developmentofcommerdalcompetitoISintheteclm010gyareaisamongthemostimportant
benentsoftheseprograms．Wesawearlierthatbyhavinganumberofnrmspursuing
Similarstrategies，theconsortiabenented丘・Omthesenseofcompetitionbetweendevelopers
Whichactedtoenhancedthespeedofthedevelopmentprocess．AscommercialiZation
drawsnear，theinnuenceofcompetitioncanbecomefhrmorepronouncedasnrmsraceto
Obtainretum丘omtheirresearchinvestment．Itisinthecreationofthesecompetitors
Wheretheresearchprqjectsseemtohaveasignincantinnuence．
NotethatirIalloftheprqjects，anaVerageOfatleastthreenrmswereselectedto
developtheprincipaltechnologyaswellasmanyofthecomponentteclm010gies；andnote
furtherthatthesenrmsareamongthemostcommerciallysuccessfu1intheirindustrial
SeCtOrS．Wecanrecall丘omourreviewofthelinearmotorcarthatthreecableandwire
manufhcturerswereselectedtodevelopthemagnetsandelectriCalinhstructure，andthree
158AkiraNakajima，’lHinoMaru：JyosefusonDensanki－OgatakeikinoShuyakunoSekiToku，
捏ikkeiSan oShimbun’Mayg．1990．p．4．
－224肩
SyStemSmanufhcturerswereselectedtodevelopthesuperconductingsystemsandthetest
Vehicle・InSuperGMweseethreegeneratormanufhcturersdevelopingseparatesystems，
withthesuperconductingwiresbeingdevelopedbyfburcの1eandwiremanufhcturers．In
thesuperconductingsensorprqjectthereare6vedeveloperSOfadvancedmedicalimaging
equipmentwithexperienceinsuperconductingequipmentandsensors．Andinthe
JosephsonjunctionandtheHTS－EDprograms，WeSaWthreeandsonrmsworkingin
Paral1el，COmpeting，tOeVentuallyenterthesameproductmafkets．
InthecaseoftheJosephsonjunctionprqject，attheoutsetoftheprqjectthethree
Principalnrmshadverylittleexperiencewiththistechnology－theyhadveryfbwpatents
andwerefhrbehindIBM．Butbytheendortheprqject，thethree，Whichareamongthe
WOrld’sleadingelectronicsnrms，arenOWamOngtheleadersinJosephsonjunction
devices．RecallingthatthesenrmswereselectedbecauseOftheirnnancial，mafketingand
technologicalstrengths，theresultoftheprogramisthateachofthesenrmsisequipped
withacapabilitythatwouldlikelynotexistwithoutthegovernmentprQject．Ithascreateda
SmallresourceofJosephsonjunctionspecialistsinnrmswhichisestimatedtototal
between50andlOO．159
Inbothofthesystemsprqiectsweseeasimilarbuildingofcompetitiveexpertise．
Theprqjectwillcreatethreegeneratormanufhcturerswiththecapabilitytodevelop
COmmerCialscalegeneratorsontheirowninitiative，Placingeachofthesenrmsinavery
goodpositionshouldutilitiesinJapanandinothercountriesdecidetoembracethe
technol喝y．
InthecaseorthesensorprQject，theprQjectwi11givefburofthenation’sleading
rnedicaldevicemanufhcturersexperienceindevelopingatechnologywithgreater
PerfbrmancecapabilitiesthananyOfitsintemationalcompetitors．Itwilltakethesenrms
丘omapositioninwhichtheyarestilltechnologicallytrailingnrmsintheUnitedStatesand
Europeintermsofperfbrmance，andplacetheminthelead．Eachofthesenrmscanthen，
again，COmmerCiallypromotetheteclm010gyonitsownintheintemationalmarket．
ThusthroughtheR＆Dprogram，theindustrywillnnditselfwithatleastthree
PrOminentnrmswithskillsinateclm01ogyareathatwillbenearorbeyondtheintemational
丘ontier．Withthreenrms，COmpetitionisencouragedandamonopolyisavoided．With
threecommerciallyprominerltfirms，thelikelihoodthatgoodideaswi1lrunintoadeadend
withtheendoftheresearchprogramisreduced．
159AkiraNakajima，，HinoMaru：JyosefusonDensanki－J恕uyokaniFutatsunoKabe：’世麺j
旦旦嘘迫垣塾払May10，1990，P．5；andfrommyinterviewswithfirmrepresentatives．
胃225－
TheparalleHirmStrategyalsoavoidsoneoftheproblemsthatLukeGeorghiou
notedregardingtheAIveyprogTaminBritain・Heobservedthat”EAChpartnertendedtobe
PrOVidinganessentialcomponent，Withtheconsequencethatifonepartnerwentoutof
businesstherewasastrongchanceoflosinganessentialpartofthework．”160
Here，Japaneseorganizationmarksasignincantdeparture丘omthatofgovernment
researchprogramsintheUIlitedStates・IntypicalU・S・gOVemmentPrOgramS，COntIaCtS
areletouttoindividualcontractorswithanemphasisonthetechnicalcapabilityofthe
COntraCtOrandlittleemphasisonthecontractorscommercialstrengths．Theassumption
drivingthisstyleofcontractinghasbeenthatiftheideaisgood，andisinthepublic
domain，SOmeOnewillpickitup．Thusonecannndmanycontractresearchorganizations
invoIvedingovemmentresearchprograms；OrganizationswithstroIlgteChnicalexpertise
butnocommercializingcapability．However，historyhasshownthatmudmoreoften
thannotnoothernrmswillpickupthetechnologyandtheresearchwillbeshelvedasnnal
reportsoncethecontractiscompleted．
InJapanthisassumptionisnotmade．Commercialstrengthisconsideredakey
ingredientfbrsuccessfulcommercialization，SOallofthenrmsthatarekeytoanyofthe
Prqjectsreviewedhereareverystrongcommercialcompetitors．Technologystrength，
Whileofcourseimportant，isconsideredpartoftherecipewhichhasallowedthesenrmsto
becomesuccessfu1，andisinanycaseinsufficient．Technologydevelopmentisnot
assumedtobeasimplepackagewhichcanpasshandsbetweenorganizationsatappropriate
StageS，butaprocessthatincludesproduction，andfbrwhichproductionknowledgeis
inte群山．
Thisagainrevealsthe”procompetitive’’strategytakenbytheprogramsinJapan．
Duringprqjectdevelopment，mutuallybenencia?iflksare”coordinated”betweeflSyStem
developersandtheirsupplierstodeveloptheneededcomplementaryassets．Butthe
PnmarySyStemSdevelopersarecompetitiveamongthemselves，andthiscompetition
acceleratesdevelopment．Ifsuccessfullyadvanced，theprqiectspositionseveralstrong
nrmsandtheirsuppliersforcompetitiveentryintothemarket．”procompetitive
COOrdination”isthem毎OrValueoftheseprograms，r10t”precompetitivecooperation．”
160JaneBird，”BritainPicksWrongWayToBeattheJapanese，一地，Vol．252，May31，
1991，P．1248．
ー226－
yHI．旦yid鐙旦⊆箪＿旦葦」呈鎚蝮ぢ止＿地道皇j也ロ＿inlheIndustrY
Whatal）OutCOOPerationoccurnngoutsideofthegovernmentprogram？Inthe
PreVioustwosections，Iexaminedtheroleofgovemmentprogramsinpromoting
COOPerationandinnovationinhightemperatureandlowtemperaturesuperconductivity．
Butthisisonlyaportionofthecollaborationthatisoccurringintheindustryasitalso
OCCurSwithoutgovernmentguidance．
InthissectionIwillexaminethisautonomouscollaborationtoseewhetherthese
patternsrenecttheinfluenceofgovemmentprogramsorofstruCtureSOftheindustry・The
Principalquestionsinvestigatedarethefbllowing．
・　　Doesevidencereflecttheuseofcollaborationfbrcorporatediversincationorthe
enhancementofanrm’spositionintheindustry？Whoarethecollaborativepartners？
・　　Doesitreflecttheinnuenceofindustrialstructureorpriorindustrialrelationships？
Intradekeiretsuhavebeenshowntohaveadistortingeffbctonthemarket，161isthisalso
trueofinnovationinthisneld？Datawhichexistsfbrindustriesgenerallysaysthatthiswill
notbethecase．162
・　　DouniversitiesplayasignincantroleincooperativeR＆D？Conventionalwisdom
aboutJapaneseuniversitiesisthattheydonotproducestate－Oflthe－artWOrkandare
removedffomtheneedS0ftheindustry．
・　　DoescollaborationrenectpriorparticipationingovernmentPrqjects？Studiesofthe
COOperativeR＆DprqiectsintheEuropeanCommunityhaveindicatedthatanimportant
COntributionoftheprqjectsistoactasacatalystfbrfbrmingrelationshipsandnetworks．
Asmentionedearlier，followingtheconnrmationofHTStherewasadramatic
increaseinthenumberofpatentapplicationssubmittedinsuperconductivity．Thetotal
numberofapplicationsincreasedfiom835in1986to6，237in1987and3，305in1988．
Cooperativelyauthoredpatentapplicationsalsoincreasedfrom35in1986，tO237in1987，
and160in1988．1630fthesecollaborationsinl987and1988，PrQjectsinHTS
represented60％ofthetotalinbothyears．
161EdwaTdLincoIn，虫旦旦垣迅月旦弘也迦也Washington，D．C：BTOOkingslnstitution，1990．
162KikaiShinkoKyokaiKeizaiKenkyujo，主軸望む三池虚型g旦nSと嘘密＿迦嘘退塾蚕些脛建逝虹」垣堕
亜璽KikaiKo oniokeruGHutsuKaihatsuKatsudonoBunseki，Tokyo：KikaiShinkoKyokai．May
1984．
163SurveydatawastakenbutlhernemoryoffirmsishighlyvariabIeandnotnecessariIyreliable，
tothedatahasnotbeenincludedhere．ThegeneralmagnitudeandgeneraHrendtoward
diversitydonotcontradictthepattemssuggestedhere．
－227－
Diversification
Oneuseofcooperationisaspartofastrategytoenteranewneld．Byexamining
thepatentapplicationswecanseewhethernrmsthatusecooperationareindeed
diversifyingintotheneldorwhethertheyarefirmswhicharealreadystronginthisneld
andareenhancingtheirstrengthS．Wecanalsoexaminewhetherthesenrmstumtoother
firms，tOuniversitiesortootherpublicinstitutionssuchasgovemmentlaboratoriesor
utilities．
Signsofdiversincationthroughcooperationappearwhenweexaminethegeneral
Changeinactivitybeforeanda食ertheconflrmationofHTS・Ifwecalculatetheratioof
COOperativetoindependentpatentsfbrindividualorganizations，Wenndtwogroupsatthe
topofthelist：l）publicorganizationsand2）nrmsnewtosuperconductivity．Public
OrganizationSCOnSistentlyhadthehighestratioofcoopefativetoindependentpatents，with
SeVenutilitiessubmittingsolelycooperativepatents．Atthetopofthelistwere
OrganizationsincludingRiken，DengenKaihatsu，JRDC，andtheJapanAtomicEnergy
ResearchInstitute，Withcooperativetoindependentpatentratiosof7．0，6・5，6・2，and2・7・
Moreinterestingfbrtheissueofdivers捕cation，however，isthesecondgroupof’
firms，thenrmsnewtosuperconductivity．Thirteenofthe14nrmswiththehighest
COOperativepatentapplicationratioswerenewtothefield，withnvesubmittingsolely
COOperativeapplicationsandtheotherswithcooperativepatentratiosrangingfiomO．25to
3．25．ThesenrmsincludeShowaAluminum，SeisanKaihatsuKagaku，Neosu，theFine
CeramicsCenter，NipponKokan，NihonSoda，ShowaDenko，ToaNenryo，andToshiba
Ceramics．Allofthesenrmshaverelativelysmal1HTSprogramsandaretryiIlgtO
maximizetheirresourcesonentry．Noneofthem可OrnrmS丘omthetraditional
SuPerCOnductivityindustryfhllintothisgroupofhighpatentcollaborators．
Forthenext360rganiZations，COOPerativepatentsubmissionswereasmal1er
perCentageOftheiroveral1submissions，butnonethelessincreasedsignincantlywiththe
arrivalofHTS．Collaborativepatentsubmissionsinthisgrouphadincreasesthatranged
丘om30％to98％，Withallofthem可OrLTSfirmsincluded．Thesetraditionalindustry
firmsshowedrathersubstantialincreasesintheirsubmissionsofcooperativepatent
applications，Withthecd）leandwiremakersconsistentlyshowinghigherratiosthanthe
SyStemSmanufhcturers．ShowaCableandFurukawahad90％and85％increasesintheir
COOPerativeoutput，andSumitomoElectricandFlカikurahad65％and60％increases．The
SyStemSmanufhcturers，Toshiba，Hitachi，andMitsubishiElectricincreasedcooperative
PatentOutPutS42％，40％and30％respectively．Therelativelygreateruseofcooperation
bycab】eandwirenmsalsoappearsintherelativeratioofcooperativetoindependent
ー　228－
PatentS，Withthemaincableandwirenrmsgenerallyshowingratiosof8－12％whereasthe
SyStemSmanufhcturersgenerallyhadradosofaround1－2％．
WiththeseindicationsthatcollaborationlSPlayingsomeroleinthestrategiesnrms
aretakingtocomeintosuperconductivity，Inextexplorethetypeofcooperationoccurring，
andlookfbrevidenceofdifTbrencesintheuseofthisstrategy．
FirstIwillexaminewhichtypesofpartnersarecommonlyselectedbynms，and
WhetherthechoiceofcollaborativepartnersdiffbrsbetweenthetraditionalLTSindustry
andHTSentrants．Figure50showsthedistributionofpatentapplicationsamongseveral
CategOriesofnrmpartners：0thernrms，gOVemmentinstitutions，universitiesandutilities．
Thengurealsoseparatesthecollaborationsonlowtemperaturemetal1icITlaterialsandthose
OnhightemperatureOXidematerials．Thesetwopiechartsshowverydiffbrentpattemsof
PartnerSelectionasgovemmentalandnrmpartnerswerethemostcommonfbrLTS
PrqiectswhereasuniversitieswerebyfhrthemostpopularchoicefbrHTSprqjects．For
LTScollaborations，50％ofthecaseswerewithgovemmentinstitutionsand32％With
Othernrms．Universitiesonlyrepresented14％andutilitiesonly4％．ForHTS
COllaborations，bycontrast，universitiesrepresented58％ofthecases，withutilities
fbllowingatl8％andnrmsandthegovernmentdownto12％each．
ThisdivisionbetweencategoriesofLTSandHTSpartnersbecomesevenmore
VividwhenthecomparisonismadebetweeneachcategoryofpartnerasshowninTable
23・LTScasesaccountedfbr83．2％ofnrm・nrmand89．2％ofnrm一gOVemment
COllaborations，WhereasHTScasesrepresented69．4％ofnrm－universityand72．9％of
nrm－utilitycollaborations．
Thelargepercentageofnrm－gOVemmentCOllaborationsinLTSisduetothelong
historyofdevelopmentofLTSmagnetsfbrgovemmentprogramsandgovemment
experimentalfhcilities．WesawearlierthatgovemmentpTOgmmShavebeenmain
SuPPOrterSandcustomersinLTSoverthepast25years，PrOmOtingthedevelopmentof
largemagnetsfbrnewenergysystemssuchaSMIⅡ），fusion，andsuperconducting
generators，andthepurchasingofmagnetsfbrexperimentsranginginsize丘ombenchscale
laboratoryusetoparticleacceleration．
Firm一nrmcollaborationsalsorenectthehistoryofLTSdevelopmentsinJapan，Of－a
Stablebutsmallmarketfbrsuppliers，aSWellasinter－nrmrelationshipswhichwillbe
exploredlaterinthissection．
ThelargeuniversitypresenceinHTScoilaborationsrenectstheironen
underestimatedroleassourcesoffi・Ontierreseardl丘omwhichtheindustrycanleam．Here
nrmswerebenentingfromthechangeinMinistryofEducationsregulationsintheearly－
ー229－
Figure50．　FimPartnersinCollaborativePatentApplications－Metal1icandOxide
SuperCOnductors
FirmPartnerSinCollaborativePatentApplications－Metallic
Superconductors
Ulilily
FirmPartnersinC011aborativePatentApplications一〇xide
Superconductors
一230－
Table23．　PatentApplicationsSeparatedbyC如egoryofFirm
ResearchPartnerandbyTypeOfSuperCOnductor
Metal1icSC OxideSC Pct．Metallic Pct．0Ⅹide
fim
GovenⅡnent
University
Utilities
1442246016
′h）
0ノ　7　3　3
2　2　1　4
83．2　　　　　16．8
89．2　　　　　10．8
30．6　　　　　69．4
27．1　　　　　72．9
1980’swhichhasmadesuchcollaborationsmucheasierthaninthepast．Thecooperative
activitiesoftheumiveISitieswi11alsobeexploredinmoredetaillaterinthissection．
Lastly，therelativelylargeremphasisonHTScolhborationsbyutilitiesismorea
reflectionoftheirrecententryintotheactivepromotionofsuperconductivitygeneral1ytharl
Ofanylong－temlVisionwhidlOnemightinfbrtheyheld．Thehigh1evelofutility
COllaborationsinHTSisunexpected，andappearstobeaninstanceinwhich，rather
ironically，theconservatismoftheindustryisaprincipalcauseofitstiltedpresenceinHTS
PatentapPlications．AlthoughprototypeSuPerCOnductingelectricitygeneratorshavebeen
developedoverthepastdecadeinJapan，therehasbeenonlylukewarmreceptionbythe
utilityindustrybecauseoftheirconcemovertherelid）ilityofthedeviceandtheimpacton
thesystemofintroducinganewtechnology．Becauseofthesizeoftheinvestmentandthe
POtentialscaleofanydisnlPtions，theutilitieshavebeenverycautiousinadoptingnew
techolo由es．
Itwasjustasthegovemmentandgeneratormanufhcturershadbeguntoconvince
utilitiesof’thevalueofsuperCOnductivity，WitnessedforexampleintheSuperGMprqject，
thatHTSwasdiscovered．ThusjustastheutilitiesarebegiJmingtofhvorhblyrecognize
researchinatheneld，theywerestruckbyanunexpectedeventinwhichthepri0ritiesin
theneldareshiftedto丘ontierresearch，aJldwhicha5aCOnSequenCehasthemsupporting
theadvancedHTSworkmorethantheysupportedthedevelopmentalLTSwork．
Thedegreeofdiversincationcanbefurtheranalyzedbyaddingonemorevariable：
thenewnessofthenrmtotheindustry．Becausethesuperconductingindustryhaslargely
beencartelizedbyasmal1setofnrms，itiseasytoidentifythemainparticipants．By
胃231－
Table24．　I）egreeofDiversincationThroughVariousModesof
Cooperation，RepresentedbyaDiversincationFactor（DF）
AllSuperconductivity OxideSuperCOnductivity
fim活ldv O．61　　　　　　　　　　　　0．72
firII痺0V’t O・18　　　　　　　　　　　1．00
Fiml〟inn O．23　　　　　　　　　　　　　0．66
CalculatingthepercentageofthecolbboratiorlSthatwereconductedwithfirmsnot
establishedintheindustry，aneStimateoftheextentofdiversi丘cationoccurringcanbe
achieved．ThispercentageisrepresentedbytheDiversincationFactor（DF）inTable24．
TheDiversincationFactorisonascaleofOtol，WithOindicatingtheinallofthecasesthe
Principalnrmsarefromtheestablishedindustry－aSignofcoreenhancement．Attheother
endofthescale，angureOflindicatesthatallofthenrmsinvoIvedare丘omoutsideofthe
establishedindustry－nrmSdiversifyingintosuperconductivity．
Thetablerevealsstrikingdiffbrencesinrolesofcolldboratorsfbrall
SuperCOnductivityandfbrHTScases．AlthoughwesawinTable23thatnrm－gOVemment
COlhborationwasweightedtowardinLTSresearch，inthecasesofHTS，…由ofthenrmgovemmentcollaborationsinvoIvednrmsdiversifyingintotheindustry，
nOtCOreenhancingnrms．
Asimilarbutlessdramaticdiffbrenceisseeninthecaseofnrm－nrm
COliaborationsaswell：Whenal1superconductoractivityisconsidered，thetraditionalnrms
dominate・HoweverwhenthecasesarelimitedtoHTS，thegreaterpresenceofthe
diversifyingnrmsemerges．
IIlthecaseofnrm－universityco11aborations，WeSeethattheuniversitiestendto
helpthediversifying爪rmsmoreinbothLTSandI汀Sresearch，withasIightlygreater
influenceinthelattercase・Universitycooperationgeneral1yisthemostlikelymadetobe
usedfbrdiversifyingnrms．
Finally，inallcategoriesofHTScollaboIations，WeSeethatdiversifyingnrmsare
morehigh1yrepresented．
－232－
Industrial Structure
Bylookingatinter－nrmCOllaborationsmoreclosely，WeCanunderstandmoreabout
thestructureoftheindustry．Thediscussionabovehasdividednrmsbetweenthosefiom
thetraditionalsuperCOnductorindustryandthosediversifyingintothefieldthroughHTS．
Inadditionto”newness，’’thereareotherdimensionswhichmighthelptoclarifypattemsof
COOPeration．Thedimensionofgreatestinteresthereistheinnuenceofkeiretsuorsome
fbrmsofindustrialgrouping．
Firstwemightaskwhethermembershipinakeiretsuorakeiretsu－1ikeorganization
（nrmswithequityholdinginothernmlS）obviatestheneedfbrcooperationoutsideofthe
group・Orstatedconversely，doesexclusionfromakeiretsurenectinagreaterneedfbr
collaboration？
InTd）le25thepresenceofkeiretsunrmsineachofthefbrmsofcollaborationis
ShowninangurewhichistermedtheKeiretsuPresenceFactor（KPF）．AhighKPFngure
general1y，andfbrnrm－nrmCOllのorationsinparticular，reneCtSaStrOngPreSenCebynrms
Whicharemembersofindustrialgroups．
WiththediscoveryofHTSwecanseethatthepresenceof－non－keiretsumembers
hasincreasedslightlyinuniversities，WiththeKPFfhlling丘omO．94toO．70，andremains
thesamefornrm－nrmCOllaborationsandgovemmentinstitutions．Fornrm－nm
COllaborations，atleastonekeiT・etSunrmisinvoIvedinabout90％ofthecollaborations．In
nrm－gOVemmentandnrm－universitycollaborations，keiretsunrmsarestillinvoIvedin
about70％ofthejointpatentapplications．Thuskeiretsudonotseemtosubstitutefbrthe
needtocooperate，atleastwithuniversityandgoverrmentlaboratories．
However，innrm－nrmCOllaborations，thequestionarisesastowhethertheyare
COOPeratingonlywithintheirgroup，diagonallyacrosstonrmsinothergroups，Orbetween
groupsinthesamesector．
Ofthe173nrm－nrmCOllaborations，153（87％）invoIvekeiretslimembers．Among
thesekeiretsucaseswecanthenaskhowmanyinvoIvecollaborationswithinthekeiretsu
andhowmanyoutsideofthegroup．Thepatentapplicationdatashowthatll80rthecases
（78％）areinthesamekeiretsuorgroupingand350fthecases（22％）areoutsideofthe
grouping．Thetendencytostaywithinthegroupfbrpatentableactivitiesisthusseentobc
ratherstrong．
Lookingatthe23％ofcasesoutsideofthekeiretsu，WeCanneXtaSkwhatkindor
collaborationstheseinvoIve．
－233－
Table25 PresenceofKeiretsuFirmsinVariousCategoriesof
Collaboration（KeiretsuPresenceFactor，KPF）
AllSuperconductivity OxideSuperCOnductivity
Fimゾfim O．87　　　　　　　　　　　　　0．93
Fim庵0V’t O．70　　　　　　　　　　　0．67
Fim琉Iniv O．94　　　　　　　　　　　　　　0．70
Ofthese35CaSeS，al1except3invoIvediagonalcollaborations．Eightarewithnrms
inotheridentinal）1ekeiretsu，24arewithindependents．Thusdiagonalrelationshipsare
SeentOeXPlainalmostallcasesofcollaborationwithnrmsoutsideofakeiretsu．Tokeep
themagnitudeinperSpeCtive，however，itshouldbebomeinmindthatofthetotalof173
firm－nrmPatentapplications，Only18．5％representcross－grOuPdiagonalalliances．
Nextisthequestionofintra－SeCtOralcollaborations，betweencompetitors．Anong
the173nml－nrmCaSeS，Only20invoIvedintra－SeCtOrCOllaborations．Ofthese20intra－
SeCtOrCOlldborations，tWOWerePrqjectsmanagedorsponsoredbyutilitiesandonewas
Closelytiedtoagovemmentprqject．Inallothercasesofintra－SeCtOrCOOPerationinvoIving
akeiretsunrm，theparticipatingnrmswereinthe輿望蝮keireLfLt（fburcasesdidnotinvoIve
如ire打〟nnnS．）
ThestrengthofindustrialgroupingsfbrpatentgenerationcanbefurtheremphaSized
byexaminingthenmlSindividual1y．ThemostsalientcaseisthatofHitachi．Hitachiha5
thegreatestnumberofcolhborationsinsuperconductivityofanyorganizationandthe
greatestnumberofcollaborators．However，ifpublicorseml－Publiccooperatorsare
excluded，thenvirtual1yal1，97％，Oftheinter－nrmaPplicationsarewithdirectlyafTiliated
nrms．ThisisshowninFigure51．ThedetailsarepresentedinAppendixD，Whichshows
thatsimilarpattemsareseentoexistwithToshiba，MitsubishiElectriC，andFurukawa
ElectriC．Cooperativepatentapplicationsareeitherwithpublicorganizations，Or，When
theyarewithothernrms，arelargelyintra－grOup．Keiretsurelationsarequitestrongin
COOperativeinnovationinsuperconductivity．
Fortheothercableandwiresuppliers，thepattemsaresomewhatdifftrent，witha
greaterrelianceonpublicorganizationsaspartners．TheexamplesofSumitomoElectric
andFl卓kuraCableareAIsogiveninAppendixD．Thesedatarenecttheimportanceofthe
Publiclal）OratOriesasfundersandusersofthisteclm0logy．
胃234胃
Figure51・　PatentApplicationCollaboratorswithHitachi，Ltd・inSuperconductivity
PublicOrganizati
○止er Fjrm 5
U niver5itieS　　　ド．
一一　′
ブ
＋ ・汰
∵
「
On5
－235－
Hi［achiGrouDFirmS
Table26　　LTSandHTSCollのorativePatentApplicationsofPrincipal
SuperconductivityFirmsin1987，1988and1989
LTS HTS
F叫ikum
Funlkawa
SumitomoElectric
Hitachi，Ltd．
MitsubishiElectric
Toshiba
1　2　2　3　4
2　1　1　4　1　1
2　0ノ　　　　　3
3　2　4　1　2　5
Earlier，eVidencewaspresentedthatthelevelofuseofcollaborationdiffbred
betweenthecableandwiremanuthcturersandthesystemsmanufhcturers．Welearnon
CloserexaminationthatthedifTbrenceisnotjustoneoftherangeofpartners，butalso
reflectsaverydifftrentlevelofuseofcollaborationtoenterHTS．
Table26showsthatthethreesystemsmanufhcturersandSumitomoElectric
COntinuedtopursuemostoftheircollaborativeworkinLTStechnologiesratherthanHTS．
Bycontmst，theothertwom可OrCableandwiremanufhcturersFttjikuraandFurukawa
increasedthelevelofcollaborativeactivitysubstantiallyinenteringHTS．Collaborationfbr
theproductdeveloperscontinuedtofbcusonactivitiesthatwereclosetotheexisting
mafket，WhichwereLTSactivities．Bycontrast，thenrmsthatwouldberesponsiblefbr
PrOducingthenrstHTSproducts，thecableandwirenrms，turnedmuchmoreto
COilaborationtom1gapsintheirscientincexpertise．
Final1y，ifwetumtothequestionofwhothesenrmscollal）OratedwithintheirHTS
research，theansweracrossalmostalloftheabovefirmsistheuniversities．Twenty－three
Ofthe32HTSapplicationsbyF可ikurawerewithuniversities，70fHitachi’S12werewith
universities，andallofSumitomo’S，MitsubishiElectriC’S，andToshiba’scollaborative
applicationswerewithuniversities．ThesoleexceptionwaSFurukawawhichcollaborated
heavilywithautilitiy－relatedresearchorganization（270f－its29cases．）Overal1the
universitiesaccountedfbr53％ofthecollaborativeHTSapplicationsamongthesenrms，
andtheutilities42％．
一236肩
Forthisnewareaofscience，itappearsthattheJapaneseuniversitieshavehada
Significantroletoplay．
Cooperation with Universities
Inthediscussionabove，itwasnotedthatuniversitypartnerswereusedinthe
m亘iorityofcasesofnrmswantingtoentertheHTSneld．Inthissectionthecooperative
activitiesoftheuniversitieswillbeexaminedmorecloselytoprovideaddedinsighttotheir
COntributiontonrmsandotherresearchinstitutionsbefbreandanertheHTSdiscovery．
Formally，therearefburwaysthroughwhichanorganizationcancooperatewitha
university．Anorganizationcanenterintoafbrmalcooperativeagreement，requeStSPeCi貞c
researchtobeconductedoncontract，donatetocreateachair，Ordispatcharesearcheratthe
expenseofthenrm．
InthissectionIwillexploreevidenceoruniversitycoopeIationwhichconnrmsthe
COntributionthatuniversitiesmaketoindustrialdiversincationaswellaSprOvidesome
PerSPeCtiveonthescopeofuniversityactivity．
BecausecomprehensivestatisticsarenotavailablefiomtheMinistryof－Education，I
willusethedataavai1ableonfbrmalcooperativeresearchagreementswithuniversities，
SurVeydatafiomaquestionnairecompletedby30profbssorsconductingresearchon
SuPerCOnductivity，andmysulVeyOf60nrmsabouttheirin－houseandcooperative
researchactivities．
ByexamlnlngreCOrdsofal1fbrmalcooperativeR＆Dagreementswithuniversities，
WefindadditionalevidenceofthecontributiontodiveISinmtionmadebyuniversities．164
0neofthenrstpointsnoticedaboutthecasesofcooperativeR＆Disthatthecases
WereWellrepresentedbybothLTSandHTScollaborators・Inthethree－yearperiod
between1987and1989therewere410rganizationscooperatingwithuniversitiesinHTS
and26inLTS．
MostofthecolhboratorsinLTSwere丘omthetraditionalsuperconductivity
SeCtOrS，heavyelectricmachinery，mbleandwire，Shipbuilding（heavymachinery），andthe
utilities，Withthesesectorsaccountingfbr81％ofthecollaborationsasshowninFigure
52・ThemqiorityofthesecollaborationsfbcussedaroundnewcoilprocesslngteClmiques
andhighneldmagnetdesigns．
164”MinkanNadotonoKyodoKenkyu，nO（Showa62Nen，Showa63Nen，HeiseiGanNen）Do
noJisshiHokyo，”Monbusho，（1988，1989，1990）．
ー237－
CollaboratorsinHTSrepresentamuchbroaderraJlgeOfindustries，alsoasshown
inFigure52・Thereisgreaterparticipationbynrmsinterestedinelectronicsapplications
andnrmslookingtodiversify丘omtheirtraditionalchemicals，Cement，andceramics
businessbases．AllofthefirmsinvoIvedarelargenrms，1istedontheFirstorSecond
SectionoftheTokyoStockExchange．Smallandmedium－Sizednrmshavenotselected
thisroutetocollaboration．
Ofthefbrmsofcooperationpossible，individualsintheindustryanduniversities
citedcooperativeR＆Dasthemosttroublesomebecauseoftheneedtodenneboundaries
andnegotiatethedivisionofproprietaryrights・CooperativeR＆Dalsomeansthatthe
industrymustmakeacontribution．AsmanynrmsdiversifyingintoHTSwerenewto
superconductivityandhadrelativelysmallprograms，theywerenotinagoodpositionto
participatethroughthisfbmofcollaboration・
RatherthanengageinafbrmalcooperativeR＆Dagreement，mOStnrmSPrefbrto
dispatchresearcheISfbrgeneraltrainlngortosetupacontractresearchagreementwiththe
proftssorandhisstudentsfbrspecincresearchtobedone・Thislateroptionwasalsoseen
asanimportantschemefbrrecruitinggoodgraduatestothenrms・Bothoftheseroutes
WereCOnSideredmorestraightfbrward．
Dataonspecinccontractsandresearchersdispatchedwerenotmadeavailableby
theMinistryofEducation，SOaqueStionnairewassentouttoproftssorsinvoIvedinthe
three－year（1984－1986）MinistryofEducationsuperconductivityresearchprogram・Thirty
ofthe60profbssorssurveyedanswered，andallreportedsomefbrmofcollaborationwith
anotherorganization．165Takingallofthecasesbetween1982and1990，Figure53shows
thatalittleoverhalfofthecbllaboratinginstitutionswerenrmsorprivatelaboratories，
aboutaquarterwereuniversities，andtheremainderwerefbundationsandpublic
institutions．
Collaborationingeneral，however，WaSatalowleveluntill987，Whenthenumber
Ofpartnerinstitutionsincreぉed丘omllto37，aS血owninFigure54・Thengurealso
Showstheparallelincreaseinthenumberofvisitingresearchersfromnrms・
Thelargestcausefbrthisincreasewasthegrowthinthenumberofnrms，丘om4to
25．Collaboratingnmscame丘omabroadrangeofindustries，againconnrmingthe
Observationthatuniversitiesplayedanimportantroleindiversincation．Thesector
distributionofthecolld）Oratingnrms，Pnmarilysincel987，areShowninFigure55．
165lnterestingly，On．yOneOfthese60professorsisalsorecordedbytheMinistryofEducationas
hostingaformalcooperativeagreement・Thisappearstobebecauseofadifferenceinmotives
fortheresearch．TheMOEsuperconductivityprogramfocussedontheoryandnewideas，being
Centeredinphysicsandphysics－likedepartments．Thoseintheformalcooperativeprograms
WereaHfromenglneerIngPrOgramSandwerethuspresumablyclosertotheneedsoftheindustry．
胃238胃
Figure52．　UniversityCollal）OrationinLTSandHTSResearchthroughtheFomal
MOECooperativeR＆DPrognm
UニlYで口．YCol】抑・こ二つnhrSR躊コ・rdおじの止くFmJH〇三垣1こ工Yt又土Dh卯
hdlエr〇1■池叫
UTJYC貢けCのⅠのロム。nh汀r5R亡拇・rChかUの止tFdH〇三C甲mvtR＆Dわ夢1爪
TmC
J人≡U
－239－
Figure53．　TypesofOrganizalionsCooperatinginR＆DwithUniversities－Froma
Surveyof30Universities
ー240一
Final1y，丘omthedataaboveitbecomesapparentthatthecollaborativeresearchis
fbcussedinthenationaluniversitiesandisnotverywelldistributedamongtheprivate
universities．Al1butoneofthefbrmalcooperativeagreementswithuniversitieswaswitha
Privateuniversity，andallofthe60profbssorsidentinedasparticipatingintheMinistryof
Educationprogrzmwere丘omnationalschooIs．Researchsupporttoprivateuniversitiesis
notabigpartoftheacademicsuperconductivityworld．
NationalProjectSpin－Off
Onespin－Offeffbctthatgovemmentprqjectsmighthaveistoprovidean
OPPOrtunityfbrnrmstoidentifymutualneeds．Then，independentofthegovemment
Prqjects，thesenrmSCOuldcollaborateseparately．Isthereevidenceofsuchcolld）Oration？
Theanswer丘omthepatentapplicationdataisno．Eightypercentofthenrmsthat
haveparticipatedinthesamenationalprqjectinsuperconductivityarefirmscooperating
Withotherkeiretsuorgroupmembers，almostentirelyHitachiCableandHitachi，Ltd．
FourothercasesarediagonalcooperationswhichinvoIveanintegratedmanufhcturer，
Furukawa，andasystemsmanufhcturer，F可iElectriC．Onlyoneisintra－SeCtOral．But
eveninthissinglecase，FujiElectricandMitsubishiElectriC，theresearchwascloselytied
totheworkdonebythegovernment．
Participationingovernmentprqiectsdidnotleadtoanyevidenceinpatent
applicationsofspin－Offcollaborationacrossindustrialgroupings．
Summary
Asconclusionsaredrawnal）OutCOllaborativepatentactivityinsuperconductivity，it
Shouldbebomeinmindthattheyrepresentonlyasmallportionoftheoverallpatent
activity，rangingfiom2to8％oftotalpatentsinanyOneyear．Thebulkoftheinnovation
asrenectedinpatentapplicationsisconductedindependently．
Thepatentapplicationsnonethelessprovideindicatorsofthecharacteristicsof
COllal）Oration，SOmeOfwhicharecontrarytopopularopinionandgeneralindustrialtrends．
Itwasrevealedthatthehighestrelativeuseofcollaborationwasbyfirmswhicharenewto
thefield，Whicharediversifyingintosuperconductivity．Therelativeuseofcollaboration
amongtheestablishednrmsintheindustrywasunifbrmlylower，althoughthisalso
increasedsignincantlywiththeirowndiversincationintoHTS．
－241－
Figure54・　NumberofResearchersandUniversitiesParticipatinginCooperativeR＆D
withFirms－FromaSurveyof30Universities
82　　83　　84　　85　　85　　87　　83　　39　　90
Year
－242胃
□R王SEARCHERS
．■－mSTITUTIONS
Figure55．IndustrialSectorsCooperatinginR＆DwithUniversities－FromFirms
IdentinedinaSurveyof30Universities
TextileS
Utility
PreciSionMachjneIγ
MotorVehicle
∵．
Elect∫icMacldnery
ConSumeTElectronics
Communicalion
Chemica15
Petroleum
Gla55＆Ceramics
Cement
Iron＆StcCl
Nonf．e汀Ou5
Cable＆Wi∫e
hduSのdMachjneけ
HeavyElec山C
－243－
Contrarytopopularimage，theuniversitiesareseentobeanimportantpartnerfbr
bothnewnrmsandestal）1ishednrmsenteringHTS・AlthoughuniversitiesinJapanare
丘equentlycriticizedfbrconductingresearchthatisnotofnrstratequalityandfbrbeing
distant丘omtheindustry，thediscoveryofHTSshowsthatthereareexceptions．Itwasa
universitywhichmadetheconnrmationofthephenomena，andinasurveybytheNational
ScienceFoundationinl987，theyfbundthatuniversitieswererankedamongthetop
CenterSOfHTSresearch，withtheUniversityofTokyotoppingallinstitutions，including
nrms．Innewneldsofscience，universitieshaveshownthattheyhaveanimportantroleto
Playineducatingtheindustry，andwecanexpectthistypeofinteractiontoincreaseasthe
numberofuniversity－industrylinkagesincreaseseachyearinJapan．
Regardingtheinnuenceofkeire加，theevidenceisthatinsuperconductivitythe
tendencytocollaboratewithinakeiretsuisquitestrong．Thisiscontrarytogeneral
industrydata，Whichshowsintra－keiretsuactivitytypicallyaccountingfbr25－50％ofal1
jointpatents．166nisdiffbrence，however，reflectsadiffbrentindustrialstructurein
SuPerCOnductivity．AstheLTSirldustryisasmalloneandasrelationshipshadbeenwell
established，therewasvirtual1ynomlgrationacrosstheindustrialgroupings．Thismay
ChangeshouldtheHTSindustrygrowandbroaderl，butintheinitialperiodofHTSgrowth
WeSaWthatmostcollaborationswerewithuniversitiesandpublicinstitutions．
Final1y，regardingthenotionthatthereisaspin－Ofr丘omgovernmentprograms
throughthecreation ofnewrelationshipslninnovation，therewasnoevidenceofthisin
thepatentapplicationdata．
OveralltheanalysistellsustObecarefulaboutsweepinggeneraliZationsof
COlhborationinJapan．Collaborationpattemswillbestronglyinnuencedbythesizeofthe
marketsandthestructureoftheindustry．TherlarrOWmarketsandestablished
relationshipsinthetraditionalsuperconductivityindustryhaveresultedinthepattems
Observedhere．IfthereisanunderlyingprlnCiple，itappearStObeoneofpracticalityin
innovation．TheindustryevoIvestopracticalrelationshipswhichstrengthensthemarket
POSitionofthenrms，andwhilegivingpri0ritytotheserelationshipsininnovation，Where
experienceisinadequate，theindustryturnstouniversitiesandpublicbodiesinsearchof
trainingandnewideas．
166KikaiShinkoKyokaiKeizaiKenkyujo，旦越，P．22．
ー244－
IX．　CONCLUSIONS
InexaminingthedevelopmentofsuperCOnductivityinJapanandtheroleof
researchconsortia，threeissueswereofprimaryconcem：l）Howweretheseprograms
fbrmedrwhohasthelead？2）Howaretheseprogramsorganizedandexecuted－What’s
theroleofcooperationandofcompetition？3）WhatimpactdotheseprogTamShave－how
dotheprogIamSadvancethescienceorthetechnology？
Thefbrmationoftheprqiectwasusedtotesttheoriesaboutwheretheleadliesin
governmentsupportedresearchprograms．Hereacommonlyheldview，Particularlywith
regardtohightemperaturesuperconductivity，167isthatMITIconsciouslytakestheleadby
Settingfbrtharesearchagendaaroundwhichtheprivatesectorwi11rally，COnSistentwith
thetheorythatthegovemmentactsa5aStrOng”plan－rational”state．168Thisisnotan
imagewhichappliestosuperconductivity．
Rather，itisthecompanies，thenationallaboratories，anduniversityprofissorsthat
taketheleadinconsideringandrecommendingareaS0fgovemrnentsupport．The
industrialaSSOCiations，inparticular，areSeentObeimportantcentersofresearchproposals
aswellasvehiclestogainlegitimacyirltheprivatesectorfbrthepromotionofthe
technologyortechnologyarea．
MITIisintegratedintodiscussionsintheearlystagesanditsdirectinnuence
dependsontheclarityofthetechnologicalgoais，Whichintumvarywiththedegreeof
advanceofthetechnoIogy，therangeoftechnicaloptions，andthetechnicaluncertainty．
ThemorerlarrOWtherangeofprornisingteChnicalchoice，themoredirectlyMITIcanexert
aninnuenceintheearlystages．AnimportantaspectinfluencingMITI’sinterestisthe
extentofadVanceoverseas．lftheworkisofsubstantialinterestatprestigiousinstitutions
OVerSeaS，ithasgenerallybeenofinterestatMITI．
Asresearchhasincreaslnglypressedthe丘ontierandastheuncertaintyandrangeor
OPtionshasconsequentlyincreased，MITIhashadtoincreasinglyrelyonoutsidesources
toproposeandevaluateideas．Thistrendofdrawingonanextendednetwofktoinitiate
PrqjectsislikelytocontinueinsuperconductivityandotherneldsascapabilitiesinJapan
contirluetOadvance．
WhereMITIdoescontributemoresubstantivelyisinfbrgingsupportinthe
govemmentandindustryneCeSSarytOSuStaintheprqjectfbrthelengthofitsmulti－year
167seeearlierreferencestoR・一nman，JapanTechno一〇gyEvaIuationCenterandM．Crow・
168The”p－anrationa］・・statereferstoatheoryJnPOliticalsciencedevelopedbyCha一merS
Johnsontodescribethestronginfluenceofthebureaucracyoverthedirectionoftheeconomy
andthestate．
胃245－
Pan．Fororganizationsdirectlyregu】atedbyMITI，SuChastheutilities，thecoercive
powersforparticipationaresignificant．EvenfbrnrmSwithoutalottogain丘om
Participation，MITI’scallcanstillbepersuasivebecauseofthemanyregulatorypowersthat
itstillholds．Inaddition，MITIofncialsspendmuchoftheirtimenegotiatingwithinMITI
andwiththeMinistryofFinancefbrannualappropriations．MITImaynotmotivatethe
ideas，butMITImakestheideaShappen．
WiththediscoveryofHTS，WeSeethesamegeneralconclusionsapplyto
fbrmation，aSthistypeofbreakthroughinsciencedoesnotdrawthepoliticalattention
neededtocircumventthenormalbudgetprocess．ThediscoveryorHTSwasnota
”political1y”signincanteVentintheeyesofmostmembersofthenationalI）ietsotheHTS
programsinMITIandtheSTAhadtoabidebythenormalbudgetaryscheduleandthushad
towaitayearandahalfbefbrefhndingwasauth0rized．MITIdidnot，andinabudgetary
SenSeCOuldnot，mOVeatthespeedoflight．
Inthelanguageofpoliticalscience，themodeofthegovemmentinthecreationof
thesenationaltechnologyprq3ectswasoneof”technology－determinedreciprocal
COnSent，”169withthereciprocitybeingabsentofanactiverolebytheDiet，andwiththe
balancedeterminedbytheclarityofthetechnicaltargets．
Inexaminingtheorganizationandmanagementofthegovernmentprograms，the
roleof’cooperationwasofprimarilyinterest．Wasitachieved？How？Whatfbrmdidit
take？Onehypothesistestedwasthatcooperationwasachievedthroughthetargetingof
PreCOmpetitive，teChnology－baseresearch．Asecond hypothesistestedwasthatthereis
SOmeuniquefbrmorlevelofcollaborationthatoccursinJapanasaresultofitsculture，
tradition，Orinstitutions．
Thecasesrevealedthatthenotiorl0fprecompetitivecooperationisanalluringbut
deceptiveonewhichdoesnotusefu11ydescribeanyoftheLTScases．Itistheperception
OftheqpprqpTiationthatmostinnuencesbehavior，nOtaWillingnesstobecooperativein
PreCOmPetition．Thecasesrevealedthatwhencolldborationwasachieved，itwasnotina
WayWhichwouldbeunexpectedofnrmsactingrationally，andwasrealizedinaway
achievhblebynrmsintheUnitedStates．
IntheLTScases，由SuperCOnductivityratherthandevelopingsuperconducting
materialswastypicalbefbrethediscoveryofHTS．Thedevelopmentofthe
SuPerCOnductirlgmaterialitselfwasneveram毎OrpartOf－anyoftheLTSactivities．
WorkingwiththesuperCOnductingwirestoprovidethedesiredmagneticfunctionswas
169〝Reciproca－Consent”referstoatheory－nPOl托ica．sciencedeve－opedbyRichardSamueIs
WhichmodelsthepolicymakingprocessinJapanasahighlyinteractiveonebetweenthe］eaders
Ofindustryandthegovemment，WiththeJeadvarylngdependingupontheissue．
一246胃
Oftenachal1enge，butmuchmoreanengineeringonethanoneinvolvingscientinc
discovery．Thisworkwascertainlynotprecompetitive．
Second，WeSaWthatmorethanleapintothefuture，them可0rityoftheprqjectsuntil
recentlyweredesignedtoemulateworkinitiatedabroadwithmostfbmlaltechnicalgoals
incrementalratherthanrevolutionary．Inmanycases，thegoalswerenotbeyondtheworld
Standardatprqiectoutset，butsomethingclosetocurrentworldperfbrmance．Thatis，it
WaSlargelyknownthattheperfbrmancegoalscanbeachievedatthestartoftheprqject．If
thetechnicalgoalsaremodest，theprognmsarelikelytobe’’teclmica11ysuccessfu1．”This
renectsthe”tatemae”oftheprocess，Withthestatedgoalsoflennotbeingthetruefbcusof
theactivity．
Regardingthebehaviorofthenrms，itwaSSeenthatthenrmsactedinamanner
COnSistentwitharationalactoraSSumPtionoforganizationalbehavior．Evidenceofa
”cultural”innuencewhichmanifbstsitselfinunexpectedcollaborationbetweencompeting
nrmsisnotevidenced．Insteadthenrmsbehavelargelyaswewouldexpectcompeting
nrmstobehave，apPrOPriatingteclm010gywhenpossible．Itisarecognitionofthese
interestsinthedesignoftheprogramthatcreatesvalue，COmPetitiveandcooperative，fbr
theconsortia．Japan’sresearchconsortiaarenotculture－bound，aSJapanesenrmsgive
Pri0ritytotheircompetitiveinterestsjustasAmericannrmsdo．
Somelevelofcooperationwasseenwhenknowledgeaboutwhatcanbe
appropriated丘omparticipationwaSStilllow，OrWhentherewasateclm010gicalimperative
andathirdpartywasactingtocatalyzetheactivity．Thegreatestamountofcooperation
betweencompetitorsoccursintheyearsprecedingthestartofatypicalprqject．Thisisa
leamingperiodwhennrmsarepoolingresourcestostudywhatthestate－0仁the－artis，and
todosomepreliminarytestingoftheteClm010gies．Thecertaintyaboutwhatcanprontably
beappropriatedislowandthebenentofleaming丘omthecommonactivityishigh．Here
COOperationoccurs．
Earlyintheprqjectnrmsstilldescribesomeexchangeofinfbrmationabout
evaluationteclmiquesandaboutequipmenttobepurchasedfbrexperiment．Butasthe
Prqjectsprogress，thenrmsarebetterabletojudgewhattheywouldliketowithholdand
PrOgrammaticcollaborationtumsmoretowardcompetition．
Asaresult，indeviceprqjects，aSeaChofthenrmsdevelopstheskillstopursuethe
teclm010giesin－house，thetechnologiesareincreasinglydevelopedseparatelyand
COmPetitively．Simi1arlyinsystemsprQjects，theprincipalsystemsdevelopersstillexpect
tobecompetitorsinthemafketplaceandweresimiladyseentoguardtheirinterests．
Inthecaseofscience，WeSeethatcollaborationcanoccurwhentheorganization
demandsitandappropriationissumcientlyuncertain，butwi11notoccurspontaneouslyir
ー247胃
thenrmsareallowedsomemeasureofinsulation．IntheISTECprogmm，WeSaWthat
Prof．TanakaandMITIseemtohaveachievedathoroughmixingofindividuals丘omthe
participatingnrmsineachofhissixdivisions・Participationappearstorenecttheskillsof
theindividualsandtheirgeographicprefbrencesmorethanrenectsegregationduetothe
proprietaryinterestsofthenrms．htheMulti－CoreProgram，bycontrast，thenrmsare
allowedtosendresearcherstoresearchcentersoruserfhcilitiestoconductspecinctasks．
Whilethenatureoftheworkisfundamental，theworkismorefbrmal1yinsulated．
Ithasbeenpostulatedthatalthoughthenrmsconducttheirresearchseparately
ratherthanjointly，丘equentfbrcedmeetingscreatea”cultureofexchange”ofinfbrmation
betweenmembersofthenrms．170This，however，SeemStOgiveanexaggerated
PerCePtion．Ininterviewswithbothparticipantsandadvisors，Whilethereisanadmission
theinteractionsareeasierbetweenthesameindividualsasyearspass，mOStPlacelittlevalue
Onthebulkoftheinfbrmationexchanged．Overtimethereismorecompetitionthan
COOperation．
Themeetingsdo，however，PrOVidetheimportantcompetitivefhnctior10fa110wing
thecompetingmembersorteamstokeeptrackofthetechnicaladvanceofitsrivalsand
POSSibleimprovetheirownposition．Ininterviews，Participantsgenerallydiscountedthe
technicalValueoftheinfbmlationexchangebetweenteams，andinsteademphasizedint王ateamexchangeandthesenseofcompetitionthatexistedintheprqjects．
Thismutual
ratcheting－uPthfOughcompetitionisakeydynamicoftheprqjects．
Keytothedesignoftheprogramsisthenurturingofthiscompetition担堅呈＿主』些
tryingtoforcecooperation．hvirtuallyallcasesofsystemsordevicedevelopment，mOre
thanonenrm，tyPicallythree，areSelectedasprimarydevelopersandworkinparallelon
thekeyaspectsoftheprqject．Theplanisnottoselecta”nationalchampion’’whichwill
monopolizethedomesticmarket，butasetofstrongnrmswhichwouldbeintemationallv
COmpetitive．
Competitionisusedduringtheoperationoftheconsortiatoenhancedevelopment．
Whenthereisclearcooperationitwasoftenincompetitiveteams，typicallyinsystems
Prqjects．Hereorganizationalcooperationoccurredwhentheinterestsofthenrmswere
Vertical1ymatchedinsupplier－uSerrelationships．TheywerethuscoordiIlatedinamarmer
Whichwasconsistentwiththeircompetitiveinterests．
Further，COmPetitionbythesesameplayersisdesireduponcompletionofthe
PrQjecttogetthetechnologyintothemarket．ThusCOmpetitionisleveragedtospeed
170NationalResearchCouncil，望迫旦塑型垣＿皇嘘上道血⊆由坦塑型址狙j也担且9宣j 地，Washington：NationalAcademyPress，1991，P．20．
胃248－
developmentduringtheprq3cctandcompetitioncanbereliedontoacceleratetheadvanceof
theteclm010giestowardthemarket．
Consortiafbsteringcompetitionismuchmoreimportantthanconsortiafbr
COOperation．Itisthisabilitytoexploitcompetitionandcoordinatenon－COmpetitivelinkS，
Or’broconpetitivecoordination”whichisatrademarkoftheconsortia．
Ifwemodeltherelationshipsbetweennrmsinasimpleinterdependentdecision
matrix，We丘ndasituationresemblingthatinFigure56betweeIlthemaJOrSyStemand
devicedevelopers．Insteadofseeingsubstantialcooperation，WeSeeSubstantial
COmpetition，withISTECandpartof－thelinearmotorcarprogrambeingtheonly
exceptions．InthecaseofISTEC，thecharacteristicsofthescience，thepersuasivenessof
MITI，andtheinnuenceoftheIJaboratoryDirectorinducedacooperativeoutcome，andin
thecaseofthelinearmotorcaritwasthephysicaldemandofonepieceofinfhstructure．
FIRM B
COMPETE C○○PERATE
COMPETE
FIRM A
C○○PERATE
JosephsonJct．
HTS Devices
Pa「ametron
Supe「GM
SC Sensor
M山tトCore
Linea「MotorCar
（SystemsDevel．）
】STEC
LinearMotorCar
（CabJeMfgs．）
Figure56　InterdependentDecisionMatdxRepresentationRelationshipsBetween
PrincipalFirms
胃249－
InthecaSeOfallotherprograms，the窺rmsedlibitedcompetitivesolutions．
ThispattemrenectingstronglycompetitiVebehaviorwasalsowitnessedinthe
industrygeneral1y．Whencooperativepatentapplicationsinsuperconductivitywere
examinedoverthelast20years，WeSaWnOevidenceof’collaborationbetweencompetitors
exceptincaseswherethegovernmentOrtheutilitieswerealsoinvoIvedtofbrcethe
collaboration．Collaborationsbetweenfirmswerenotonlylargelyvertical，butfbrthe
largernrms，WerePnmari1ywithintheirindustrialgrouping・Competitiveappropriation
agalnundediesthecooperativebehaviorofthenm・
Althoughbureaucraticrivalriesappeartobeatleastasintenseasnrmrivalries，With
littlecrossparticipationbetweenbureaucraciesandtheirnationallaboratories，thereseems
tobelittlenegativeefhctonthenrmsandtheuniversities，WiththeseorganizationspedlaPS
benentingfiomtheinsulatorybehavior．Eventhoughthebureaucraciesdonotcooperate，
theprincipalnrmbenenciariesoftheprqjectsaregenerallythesame．Afterestal）1ishing
theiradministrativedomainsintransportation，Orenergy，OrSenSlng，thediffbrent
programsinthedifTbrentbureaucraciesendupfundingthesamesetofnrmstodothe
WOrk．ThisisparticularlytruefbrLTSprqjects．
Universityprofissorsalsoseemtobenent丘omthedivisionofbureaucraciesas
theycanmoveacrossborderstogainfromthediffbrentresourcesoffbred．Fromtheirown
ministry，theMinistryofEducation，theyreceiverCsearchgrants；丘omtheScienceand
TechnologyAgencytheycanget丘eeaccesstostate－0仁the－artreSearChequipment；and
丘omMITItheycandeveloptheirindustryconnectionsandreceivesomelevelof
remunerationfbrparticipationonadvisorycommittees．BureaucraticriValriesdonotappear
tohavehandicappedsuperconductivityresearchatthebenchlevel．
ThethirdgeIleralissueisoneofimpact．Withthefbfmalgoalsa5h7temae，the
honneliesinimpactonavarietyofdimensionsofinnovation，withdifftrencesseentoarise
betweenprqiectstargetedatdevicesvs．systemsvs．science．Table27summarizedthe
difftrencesdiscussedinthischapterandtheirrelativeimportancetothediffbrentcategories
Oftechnologies．Theresultsareagaingeneral1yconsistentwiththeoutcomeexpectedof
COmPetitive，rationalactorsirlaCOllectiveactivity，Whereuncertaintyandappropriability
StrOnglyinnuencethevalueofthevari0usbenents．Someofthemorenotablepoints
includethefbllowing：
Therelativeimportanceof－thegovemmentprogramtothenrminthespecinc
technologyareaistypicallyhigh，Oflenaccountingfbrmorethan50％ofthenrm’seffbrt．
TheprogressmadeinthecorescienceandtechnologyinpastLTSprqjectsis
typicallyincremental，nOtreVOlutionary，althoughtheleapisincreasing．
ー250－
Table27　　SummaryOfDiffbrencesbetweenSystems，Device，andSciencePrQjects
inCollaborativeR＆DinSuperconductivity
SysteHIS Device Science
’－JPJ．’V－．?－’．L・．・・．．－・．．－．一一一－一一．一一一一一－－T一一一－－一一一一－－一一－一一－一一一一・一一一一一一一一－・－－T－一一一一・一・－－一一一一一一・一・一一一一・一・一一一一一一－－－・一・一・一一・一一・一一・－一一一，－一一一－一一一一一一一一－－－．－．一一一一一一．－一一一一一－．
Examples superGM JosephsonJct ISTEC
SuperconductingSensor HTS－ED Multi－Core
qFP
FormatioII Use〟Association Gov，tLab／hdustryScientists／Gov，tlab
OrganizationalMode coordinatedzuld hsulaIedmd Mixed－Varyingon
Competitive Competitive AbilitytoAppropriate
Bene丘b
加グ0γは〃Ce如Jのvelo
J〃一〟0〟∫gFiγ和AcわVウ
Coγe∫C肺ced′7d花C力乃0わgy
飢相可如血の
β柳肺の
Co／叩Je椚どれブロワA∫∫er∫
プ′．J／′刷∫
g〟のJf〃gCo叩融血γ∫
Signi丘∝mt Mder叙e
hcrementd hcrementd
Eqpt．PurchaSe Eqpt．Purcha5e
Small
Small
Peripherals
Users
M∝iemfe
Signincant
SILStainlnga乃chnologlCalBase Significant
M∝ie感e
Signincant
Significant
SmalltoLarge
IncrementaltoAdvanced
Teclm0logyBase－
Eqpt．Purcha5e
Moderate
ModeratetoHigh
ResearchEqpt
ProcessingEqpt
Signincant
Significant
Significant
Amajordirectbenenttobothtothenationallaboratoriesandthenrmsisthe
acquisitionofexpensiveR＆Dequipment．Asmostofthebudgetsreceivedbythenrms，
andallofthebudgetsreceivedbythenationallaboratoriesarespentonequipmentand
materials，participationallowsfbrasignificantupgradewithstate－Of－the－artequipment．
Alessdirectbutequallyimportantbenentistheacquisitionofmarketsand
nurturingfuturemarketsfbrsuperconduCtingproducts．GoverrmentR＆Dandlaboratory
prqjectshavebeentheprincipalmarketsforsuperconductingwireandmagnetsfbrthe
lengthoftheindustry’shistoryinJapan．Inthecaseofthesuperconductinggenerator
PrOgram，thelinearmotorcar，andtheMIIDgeneratorprogram，themarketiswelldenned・
肩251－
Participationinthethegovemmentdevelopmentprogramswouldbeanimportantentreeto
theeventualmarkets，Withtheaccumulatedexperienceeffbctivelyservingasa
barrierofentrytoothernrms・Notethatintheprograms，theprincipalnrmsarealwaysthe
Same．
Ferretingout”blindalleys．”Theincrementaldesignoftheprogramsandstyleof
researcharewellmatchedtothefunctionofexploringavarietyofpathsandfbrretiIlgOut
unproductiveapproaches．ThisappearsparticularlytrueortheresearchinHTS．
Establishingcommonevaluationtechniques．Forresearchtoadvanceitisimportant
fbrthelanguageofprogresstobecommon・Anemphasisonevaluationatthebeginningof
theprogramprovidesfbracommonteclmicallangugeandfbrasenseofwhichevaluation
techniquesaremostef旋ctiveandreliable．
Thescienceprqiectscontributetobothdiversincationanddiffhsionbutthe
technologyprq5ectsstronglyfhvorm亘ior，eStablishedactors・
Developingcomplementaryassetsisadesignedbenentinsystemsprqjects，anda
moresererldipitousresultofprogressinscience．ForsuperconductiflgSyStemSthismeant
developingthesupportingrefhgeration，Shielding，COntrOl，OrSerlSingtechnologiesneeded
torealizefhlldevelopment，arlddevelopiIlgrleWreSearChandprocessiIlgequipmenfto
enabletheadvanceofanewneld．
TraininglSaParticularlyimportantbene6tofthescienceprqiects，althoughitclearly
benentsal1prqjectstosomeextent．FortheHTSprojects，trainingappearstobethe
Principalanticipatedbenefitofthenrms，abenentmoredimculttoachieveintheUnited
Statesbecauseofgreaterjobmobility．
Commontoallprqiectsisthebenent丘omincreasingtheteclm010gicallevelof
COmPetitivenrmsorteamswhichwilltakethedevelopmentsintothemarket．Apri0rityon
thecommercialcapabilityoftheparticipantsandtheleveragingofprocompetitive
COOrdinationresultsinalevelofincreasedindustrialcapabilitythatisatleastclosertothe
State－Of－the－art，ifnotdenningthe丘ontier．
AIsocommontoallprqjectsisthevaluecontributedthroughlong－termSuPPOrtOf
theteclm010gies，Whichaidsthemaintenanceoratechnologicalbase．InmanyoftheLTS
CaSeSStudied，itisthelengthofcommitmentandthetimeprovidedfbrincremental
improvementswherethegovemmentprovidesitsmostimportantcontribution．TheMm
Pr亘iectwasinitial1yscheduledtorunfbr5years，butdevelopmentwasfbundtobemore
dimcultthanexpected．Astheutilities，aSemi－Publicsetofbodies，WOuldbetheprimary
benenciariesofitssuccess，themarketwasnarrowanddevelopmentwouldnotbeexpected
tocontinuewithoutpublicsupport．Theprqjectwasthuscontinuedfbranadditional12
yearS．
－252－
Developmentofthelinearmotorcarbeganinl970andcontinuedimprovementofthesuperconductingmagnetsandprototypetestingiscontinuingtoda
，21yearslater．The
nrstsuperconductingelectricitygeneratorprqjectwasinitiatedinl974，thenextinl977
andthenextin1988，WithannalprototypeprQjectanticipatedtobeginin1996．Thus22
yearswillhaveelapsedbetweeninitialgoverrmentsupportandthestartofthedevelopment
Ofapracticalprototype．
EveninthecaseoftheJosephsonJunCtion，Whichwastargetedfbramoregeneral
commercialmarket，thetenyearlengthof－thegovemmentprogramallowedthenrmsto
COntinuetheeffbrtfbr7yearsafterlBMdroppedoutandhelpedthemattainaclear
international1eadinthistechnology．
ThesameistrueoftheHTSprqjects．TheMITIprogramassuresthattherewi11be
asustained，10－yeareffbrt，tOadvancetheperfbrmanceofthesematerialswithalaboratory
Ofabout90researchers．TheSTAprogramwillallowtheSTAlaboratoriestoacqulre
State－Of・the－art，andsometimesintemational1yleadingresearchfhcilitiesfbrHTSandother
materialsresearchwhichwillcontinuetobeavailableoncethefbma15－yeartermOfthe
programexpires．Theprogramwillataminimumprovidefbramuchenhancedabilityto
COnductscienceoveraperiodfhroutlastingtheprogram．
Inthishistoryananalogycanbedrawnwiththedevelopmentofthecomputer
industryinJapan．Overthe25yearsofgovemmentsupportfbrR＆Dconsortiain
COmPuter－relatedareas，manyPrQjectsinhardwareandsoftwarewerecreated．When
Viewedindividual1y，mOStfhiledtoachievethekindofmarketimpactthatwashoped．But
Whenviewedcollectively，WeCanSeealong－term，SuStainedhistoryofsupporttheindustry
untiiitistoday，amOngthestrongestintheworld．
AsthescientincactivityoftheconsortiaalonehaSbeenseennottobeaprincipal
goalofmostofthesuperconductivitycases，POlicymakerselsewhereintheworldshould
bearthisinmindwhendevelopingprogramsostensiblymodeledonthe’Tapanese
experience．”Simplyestdblishing4to6superconductivityconsortiainvoIvinguniversities，
nationallaboratoriesandtheindustry，aSreCOmmendedbyTheCommitteetoAdvisethe
PresidentonHighTemperatureSuperconductivity，171mayonlyprovidemarginal
SCientincorcommercialretums．
Superconductivityhasbeenraisedinanenvironmentof’boundedcompetition”in
JapanandhasbeenaninduStryWhichhasrequiredlong－termSuPpOrt．Whetherornotone
acceptstheargumentofthe CouncilonSuperconductivityfbrAnericanCompetitiveness
1ー1上1迫虹［旦弧匹望加盟旦些堅堅些辿銀山虹＿聖些逆生旦些生型迫旦嬰perationontheRoadto
⊆⊆塑型旦墜直拉感垣皿Washington：TheCommitteetoAdvisethePresidentonHighTemperature
Superconductivity，1987．
－253－
thattheU．S．governmentneedsa5－year，＄250mi】1ioTldollarprogram，172policymakers
shouldbeawarethatthisisatechnologywhichneedssustainedcommitment．
172DavidStipp，・・superconductorGroupRecommendsJointlndustry－GovernmentProgram
AsianWallStreetJogI［嬰l．．June18．1991．
－254胃
APPENDICIES
一255－
APPENDIX A．
Ma訂letName
SuperconductingMagnets Usedatthe NationaZ
LaboratoryforHigh－EnergyPhysics（Superconducting
Mangetsand Cr・yOgenicSystemsin KEK，Monbusho，
Ko－EnerugiButsurigakuKenkyujo，April1991）
Year Fieldstrength　Current Stored
（B－maX，T）　　仏）　　　Energy
Manuhcturer
SeptumMagnet
Benkei－LargeAperture
SD430
TOPAZSolenoid
VENUSSolenoid
AMYSolenoid
lOTeslaDipole
14TSplitSolenoid
5PoleVerticalWiggler
PCMAG／BESS
ToroidalMagnet
Dipole，HadronCollider
Dipole，HadronCollider
hse山onQuadnlpOle
SKSSpectrometer
ASTROMAGTest Coil
LHCModelDipole
5415142
153， 70．5．．9200180，5，‘UO・
23410411′021⊥7′0′0451
1224′0′050ノ0ノ00000011
0000005008800000ノqノ0ノ0ノ0ノqノ0ノ0ノ
90ノ0ノ999070ノ0ノQノQノQノQノ0ノQノQノ0ノ
llll11⊥1⊥lll?lllllll
2240　　　　52kJ
610　　　　　3．15MJ
3518　　　　615U
3650　　　19MJ
4000　　　　11．7MJ
5000　　　　40MJ
6340　　　　728kJ
570　　　　1019kJ
220　　　　　220
512　　　　　815kJ
1550　　　　2．9MJ
5968　　　　50U
6500　　　　50kJ
3405　　　　336kJ
498　　　　11．2MJ
800　　　　10MJ
12720　　670U／paiT
ー256－
Furukawa王≡lec仕ic
MitSubishiElectric
FurukawaEIectric
FurukawaElectric
MitsubishiElectric
HitachiLtd．
HitachiLtd．
MitsubishiElectric
IHICo．，Ltd．
Toshiba
Mit5ubiShiElectric
KEK
KEK
HitachiLtd．
Toshiba
Toshba
ToShiba
APPENDIX B・　EquipmentandFacilitiesAdvertisedforCooperative
ResearehUseattheMutli－CoreProgramResearch Cores
Core EquipmentandFacilities
Theory
DabBase
NewSuperconducting
Matedds
MaterialComposition
Thh Film
SingleCげStaユ
Litho訂aphy
Simulationmanagementequlpment
Alloydesi辞lWOrkstation
Datausesyste汀lteminalworkstations
Solidphasereactionmethods
Dryprocessmethod
MultistagemoiSturemethod
SoIGelprocess
Liquidphasereactionmethods
Ultra－hstquenchingmethod
Vaporphasereactionmethods
Surfhcemodincationmethod
Solidpressurizationmethcds
Highpressuresolidphasereaction
Highpressure，multistagepreSSuTization
Sealedtutrpressurizalion
Vaporpressurizationmethods
HighpressuregaSPreSSurization
Otherequlpment
30，000tonhighpressurepress
Thickfilmultra－fastquenchingequlPrnent
HighAowtemperatureX－raydiffractionmeter
SIMS
SQUIDmagneticneldmeasuringequipment
SolidphaseelectrolysisequlPment
Lightbeamcrystalgrow也equlPment
Lightexcitationreactionequipment
Multi－elementlowtemperafureTeaCtOT
ControlledstructurefilmlayenngequlPment
AugerelectronspeCtraldiffractionanalyzer
MossbauereffectmeasurlngequlPment
Pick－uPequlPment
Condensingfloat－ZOneprOCeSSequlPment
TopseedequlPment
HightemperatureStage空CrOSCOpe
PortTaitmanagementequlPment
Realtimeevaporationmulti－taTgetSPutteringequlPment
lASereVafX）rationequlPment
LightdecompositionCⅥ〕equipment
LASerSurfhcealterationequlPment
MolecularlineepitaxyequlPment
ElectronbeamexposureequlPment
Dryetchingequlpment
LithographyequlPment
BasicConductor Solidphasereactionmethods
Sputterprocess
VacuumevaI氾総tion
－257－
HighField
CrystalStruCtu∫e
ChemicalComposition
Radiation
PhysicalandChemical
mproceSS
Liquidphasereactionmethds
Electronkmi∫radiationprocess
Ultra一缶或meltcoolingprocess
Vaporphasereactionmethods
Powdercomplexfieldprocess
Chemicalreactionmethods
SoIGelprocess
Applicationprocesses
Plasmajetme也の5
80Tlongpulsemagnet
40Thybridmagnet
20Tlargeboremagnet
Ultra一minutemagnetfieldmeasurlngequlPment
Ultra－highresolutionelectronmicroscope
PowderX－raydiffractionmeter
ESCA
Crystalstructureanalysesprograms
HighresolutionelectronmicroscopePOrtraitanalysisprogram
PhotoelectronspeCtaCleanalysisprogram
Rutherfbrdbackscattering（RBS）equipment
CAICISS
ScannlngtunnelmiCroscope
MuonspeCtraldiffractionequlPment
Gamma－rayirrad血ionequlPment
ElectronlineradiationequlPment
Neutronirradiationequlpment
Neutrons洋CtraldiffractionequlPment
IonirradiationequlPment
XPS／ESCA
X－raydiffhction
SmS〝MA
SqUID
AugerelectronspeCtrOSCOpy
ScannlTlgelectronmicroscope
EDX
－258－
APPENDIX C．　ProgramandPerformanceInformationRegardirlgthe
SuperconductingEIectricityGenerator
胃259－
Surx2rCOnductor
－Enhanccment of current denslty
－　Reductlon ofloss
－Enhancement of stab111ty
E山lanCement
Multi－Cylindrical rotor
Characteristi
aSSem
ー　Vibration
一日anufacturing and
ー　StructLu・al material
－Structuralintegrity
ー　Nの01－
－Hinding
Flold融ndlng
－Wlndlng manufacturlng methcx1
－Supportlng and flxlng meth∝1
→Cooling methodin translent stato
Ⅵ1ndlng
昌芸芸昔岩。3 a賃崇C崇hcd　　　　　－Evaluatlon method
Evaluation teclm lque
日　　日胃　　胃
］　　　　　　　　　　　　　l
Warm damF喰r
－　Shleld　charaC
l　　　　　／ ーHanufact思・1ng
＼、くL　＼　＼　＼　＼　＼　＼　＼　＼　＼　＼l＼　＼　＼　－Y′＼
工C　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　1声ご一一調?
霊悪霊告票軸。　　し　′′′境ら′′′堪′′　ノ
′aluation technique　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　フ一一
′′′′′〝′′ノ′′′′′′渚ろ
．、．．叫、、隻手、、、豪、、、、、、、、P・．．。，．
／
J
匝ellu皿Tran
armatur。Hl。。i。g　ll－　7 朝　川
S。PfX，rt m。thcd　　　　　　／
－Ilelium gaS
－　Vacuum　Sea
－　Penetratlo
－Security o
－Optimum double trans［氾Sed conductor
OI光ratio【－COntrOl
－Start／StOP OrXjration method
－Turning oFXjration method
－＾utomatic control methc（l
C0011ng system
1nsulat methの
teristic
technique
Sfer coupllng
Seal
l
n heatinhibition
f reliability
ーEffcctive coolirlg for fleld wlnding
－Effectlve coollng for rotor
－Cooling for structural matcrlalsln transient state
－Coollng andinsulatlon method for currentlead
Protectlon＆detectlon
－Quench detectlng rnethod
－　Measurement mothod
－Dlagnostlc teclmlquo for abnorrnal opcmtlon
Halntenance
－Malntenanceltems and frequency
－Repalring technl甲1e
Fig．3　Main R＆D subjectsofsuperconducting generator
FY1988　－
＜Element Technique＞
Characterlstlcs of
erconductor for Field
Hindin Of Generator
（Slow／Quick Response
Excitation Type）
Fleユd Hindin
C01d Dam Radlatlon Shleld
工9三gと堕」連盟
－　Nのーー
＜Partlal Model＞
Fleld Hlndlng
Model
Mechanical Structure for
Thermal Shrlnka
（Double Bearlng．Flexlble Disk）
三圭と三二tL〔工Lユ
（Single Layer Type．Squirrel
Cage Type．Three Layer Type）
Characteristlcs forIfrC Seal
Heat Transfer Characterlstlcs
Armature Conductor
（Double Transposed）
Multトcylindrlcal
Rotor Modol
rIeliuJn Transfer Coupling
（I汀C）Model
Rotatlng C0011ng Model
Armature Wlndlng Model
く200榊　class Pilot
Machine＞
Basic Desi n and
Elemental Technolo
∧・
＜70捕イ　class Model
Machirle＞
Rotor
（Slow ／Qulck
ResponsQ
Excltatlon Type）
Fig・4　R＆D step forsuperconducting generator
／
／
ドiIamCrlCl）ialllCCcr
／
（a）Higll Stability tyl光
（Slow rcsr氾nSe t押C A）
FilamenL DiameLCr
（b）High currcntCIcnsity typc
（Slow response t押CID
Fig．7　R＆D targetofNbTisuperconductors
Filamen［Diamcter
m用
（C）bw AClosstypc
（Quick response typc）
APPENDIX D． PatentApplication CollaboratorswithMajorSystemS
and CableandWireFirmsinSuperconductivity
－263－
CooperativePatentApplicationsinSuperconductivity．HitachiLtd
－264－
NRIM
C00PerativePatentApplicationsinSuperconductivity，Toshiba
－265一
JR
JAERl
CooperativePatentAppHcationsinSuperconductivity，MitsubishiELect「ic
－266－
C00PerativePatentAppJJCationsinSuperconductivity，FurukawaElec．
－267　－
NTT
JRDC
CooperativePatentApplicationsinSuperconductivity，SumitomoEk）Ctric
ー　268－
C00PerativePatentAppllCationsinSuperconductivity，FujikuraCable
ー269－

「－、．．．1：、、．
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m
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